VEGETARIANISM IN INDIA
Though no country in the world is as strongly associated with vegetarianism
as India, a number of recent studies have purported to establish that by far
the greater majority of Indians are non-vegetarians. The history of vegetarianism
in India begins not with the Aryans, as is commonly believed by Hindus, but
in the aftermath of the introduction of Buddhism and Jainism in the sixth century
BCE. Though orthodox Hindus are shocked to hear it, the early Aryans were almost
certainly beef-eaters. Unlike the Indus Valley people, who were agriculturists
and traders, the Aryans were a pastoral people, and they slaughtered cattle
as food. Neither the early Indus Valley people nor the early Aryans venerated
the cow. Though the Buddha was an exponent of ahimsa, or non-violence, he was
not himself a vegetarian, and it is said that his last meal contained pork.
Nonetheless, given the Buddhist emphasis on ahimsa, vegetarianism received much
impetus. The Buddha's slightly older contemporary, Mahavira, the founder of
the religion that would come to be known as Jainism, took the precepts of ahimsa
much further, and it is the complete reverence for all forms of life that made
it impossible for those who embraced Jainism to practice agriculture. The upper
castes, who found members of their community deserting the "Hindu"
fold for Buddhism or Jainism, increasingly came to adopt vegetarianism.
In 1977, the Marxist historian R. S. Sharma, then Professor of History and Dean
of the Faculty of Social Sciences at Delhi University, published his textbook
Ancient India. He wrote that the ancient Aryans were beef-eaters, adding in
explanation that "it is because of the prominence of pastoral life that
beef-eating prevailed in Vedic times." He maintained that long after agriculture
had commenced, the practice of beef-eating continued among certain classes of
people, especially "artisans and agricultural labourers". Sharma had
said nothing exceptional, and the weight of much Indological scholarship was
behind his work; even the staunchly Hindu nationalist writer, K. M. Munshi,
had once noted, without a trace of embarrassment, that "in spite of Jainism
and Buddhism, fish and meat, not excluding beef, were consumed extensively by
the people." Yet Sharma's remarks were construed as conveying his advocacy
of non-vegetarianism, and particularly beef-eating; and so Sharma was charged
with deliberately offending the sentiments of orthodox Hindus among whom the
consumption of beef cannot be contemplated. A local Hindu leader demanded the
"immediate banning of Prof. R. S. Sharma's Ancient India" for his
references to beef-eating in Vedic India. While more than ably defended by professional
historians and much of the print media, Professor Sharma's supporters appear
not to have understood that the anxieties his remarks had raised were not to
be resolved solely by recourse to an 'objective' and 'scientific' history. It
is often a thin line that divides Hindus from Indian Muslims, and a beef-eating
Hindu, by virtue of the transgression implied in the act, can be inferred to
have become akin to a Muslim. If a circumcised penis remained one of the few
ways to distinguish Hindu and Muslim men during the horrendous killings accompanying
the partition, the all-consuming anxiety over beef-eating is better understood.
Where substantive differences are minimal, and certainly subservient to common
cultural practices, symbols are the preeminent way in which differences are
exaggerated in order to permit the drawing of boundaries.
It is no exaggeration to say that for some Indians, their vegetarianism is itself
their dharma. Doubtless, there are many communities where the consumption of
meat or fish is very common. This is true, for instance, of people living in
the coastal states, such as Kerala and West Bengal, and the entire west coast
of India, as well as Bengal, is renowned for its seafood dishes. Among Muslims,
as well, the consumption of meat is very common, and in finer cuisines associated
with Muslims, meat dishes often predominate. In north India, among Punjabis,
chicken and mutton (goat-meat) dishes are relished. Nonetheless, the perception
of India as a paradise for vegetarian food is not entirely mistaken, whatever
the statistics and anthropology texts may have to say about this matter. There
are communities, for instance Jainas and Vaishnava Hindus, where vegetarianism
is strictly observed, but millions of other Indians are vegetarians as well.
Even in many Indian families where meat is consumed, it is done no more frequently
than one day a week, usually on a Sunday afternoon. For many other families,
meat - again, usually chicken or mutton - is partaken three or four times a
year, most often at weddings.
The history of vegetarianism in India, however, goes well beyond the history
of specific food practices in regional communities. Vegetarianism is also a
matter of sensibility, of the ethos of a culture. Orthodox Hindus and Jainas,
for instance, do not use garlic or onions in their cooking, much less have raw
onions in their salad. Clearly, this prohibition has no relation to the taking
of life, but every relation to the properties ascribed to various foods. Certain
foods are 'hot', others are 'cold'; foods are also categorized according to
their supposed internal propensity to excite the passions. Whatever the medicinal
properties of onions and garlic, these foods are believed to be base in some
respects; more significantly, both onions and garlic give out strong smells,
and it is argued, not unreasonably, that consumption of these items obfuscates
the richer and softer tastes and smells associated with vegetables. Similarly,
it is common to find in middle class families in north and central India women
who do not partake of meat, fish, or eggs, though the men in their families
do so. The consumption of meat is sometimes associated with masculinity, or
with the violent conduct to which men are more often prone: to eat an animal
is to turn oneself into an animal as well. Though this formulation may not describe
precisely the views of Mahatma Gandhi, perhaps India's most famous exponent
of vegetarianism, it is unequivocally clear that Gandhi sought to draw a close
association between the practice of vegetarianism and the observance of non-violence,
understood both as the renunciation of violence and positively as conduct leading
to the good of others. Gandhi attached great importance to diet, and argued
vigorously that vegetarianism was more conducive to a life led according to
the precepts of ahimsa. In this manner, as in many others, Gandhi had tapped
on to beliefs widely shared in India.