In this
paper I will examine the Buddhist diet - its restrictions, significance, symbolism,
and the reasons behind these guidelines. Most of the world's great religious or
spiritual faiths have some sort of guidelines, restrictions, recommendations,
and/or symbolism involving diet, food and beverage. Some faiths exclude certain
types of animals, have certain holidays that restrict specific types of food,
discourage gluttony, and/or limit or prohibit the use of alcoholic beverages.
Buddhism, in general, fundamentally prohibits any and all animal meat or intoxicants
at all times. However, with further investigation, there are some unusual or less-well-known
additions or exceptions to this relatively simple guideline. The reasons behind
these restrictions are slightly more complex and warrant further discussion. It
is necessary to note that, like many other faiths and traditions, there are various
translations, interpretations, and degrees of tolerance within Buddhism. I will
not focus on any one "school" or "sect" in Buddhist thought,
but refer to and contrast/compare any specific variances as they come up, if they
are crucial to my focus.
Whether or not the reader does or does not "believe"
in the Buddhist teachings should not matter to the spirit of my argument. The
Buddhist teachings and tradition provide important "food for thought"
to all of us; thought that can at least be adopted metaphorically for today's
more secular and science-centered world. (This by no means is meant as a discredit
to Buddhist thought and faith, but merely a prelude to the following argument
and a request that the reader proceed with an open mind and an open heart).
I
will begin by summarizing the importance of The Buddha's instructions for the
"Five Contemplations While Eating", since this is an exercise that forces
the Buddhist to stop and think about the food they are eating. It is the first
step in questioning what food is, why we eat it, where it comes from, and when
and how we should eat it. One must:
"think about where the food came
from and the amount of work necessary to grow the food, transport it, prepare
and cook it and bring it to the table." (1)
One should then consider if
one deserves the food or not - are they worthy of it? One should consider one's
own mind - is it greedy, out of focus? One should know that the food provided
is a necessity and a healing agent for the body, that they are subject to illness
without the food. And finally, one should remember that food is only received
and eaten for the purpose of "realizing the Way" (1) or a part of the
means-to-an-end to reach enlightenment.
While one contemplates these, s/he
must determine which food is appropriate for consumption, and which is forbidden.
Furthermore, it is important to know why certain foods and drink fall into either
the forbidden or appropriate categories. To do this, we must first look at the
"Five Moral Precepts", one of the most important aspects of Buddhism.
Failure to follow any of the "Five Moral Precepts" causes harm to
others, further clouds one's true seeing nature, and greatly decreases one's chances
of being born a human again (a vantage point along the path to enlightenment);
these are the basis for their forbidance. The "Five Moral Precepts"
are NO killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, or partaking of intoxicants.
The last one is forbidden because it tends to hinder one's judgment and make one
more susceptible to committing one of the first 4 precepts. This is why alcoholic
beverages are forbidden. Having a drink may not have direct karmic effects on
another being, but if drink increases the chances of one committing the other
precepts, then it is dangerous, and therefore discouraged. And to the individual
(an oxymoron in Buddhism), intoxicants will distort and cloud one's samadhi (proper
concentration, necessary for meditation) and path to enlightenment.
So what
is wrong with the other 4 moral precepts? Stealing and lying are not directly
related to my topic of diet, but are forbidden because they cause bad karma. Causing
bad karma harms other sentient beings, and sooner or later will come back to haunt
the original liar or stealer.
How is sexual misconduct related to diet? In
the Shurangama Sutra (Mahayana school), The Buddha explains how the "Five
Pungent Spices", including garlic and onions, are forbidden:
Beings who
seek samadhi should refrain from eating [the] five pungent plants of this world.
If these five are eaten cooked, they increase one's sexual desire; if they are
eaten raw, they increase one's anger. (2)
Furthermore, the gods "will
stay far away from them because they smell bad, [and] hungry ghosts will hover
around and kiss their lips". (2) Being around ghosts will hinder one's quest
for enlightenment. These demons have the power to appear as false Buddhas and
speak false Dharma. The Buddha further warns that in the Dharma-ending Age (the
age in which we are now) there will be an abundance of false prophets, or ghosts
and demons who will appear as Bodhissatvas. Those who are so far off the path
might believe in or be possessed by ghosts or demons mascarading as enlightened
masters. These demons might talk the misguided ones into consuming "excrement
and urine, or meat and wine" and justify it. (3)
I discuss killing, the
first and most important moral precept, last because it is the precept that is
the heart of the focus of the Buddhist diet, indeed the most important aspect
of it.
In the Judeo-Christian tradition's Ten Commandments - "Thou shall
not kill" is generally taken with multiple exceptions. For example, it is
all right to kill in battle for protection, or to eat or sacrifice animals (in
the Old Testament, God required animal sacrifices). By contrast, no kind of killing
of animals or people is ever allowed in Buddhism - these are the indisputable
guidelines. However, there are various levels of "severity" that these
tenets hold in various times, places, and sects. For instance, in the early Indian
Vinaya (Monastic Code), since the monks were homeless wanderers, it was common
practice to beg for food (this tradition is still practiced similarly in Theravada
(or Hinayana) countries in SouthEast Asia). The monks "were expected to eat
everything that was put in their begging bowl without discrimination, including
meat or rotten food". (4) The Vinaya was so strict that monks had to watch
out for any tiny organisms in their drinks or where they walked. Since the monks'
food was obtained by begging, they were to have no knowledge of the food's source
beforehand. If they received meat,
the monk had to be convinced that the meat
was not specifically prepared for him. The criteria were that the monk had not
seen, not heard, or did not have a suspicion that the meat had been prepared specifically
for the monks. (4)
It was the monk's conscious effort to obtain vegetarian
food that "counted".
In the early centuries of the common era, Mahayana
school Buddhism made its way into China (and eventually other Mahayana countries,
Korea and Japan). Here, monasteries developed with land for monks to cultivate
their own food, more or less guaranteeing its vegetarian nature that is not always
possible through begging. This made it possible for the monks to follow a more
strict vegetarian diet, and even develop a cuisine style (jai in China, shojin
ryori in Japan). It is a Mahayana goal to help all other beings achieve enlightenment.
So it is due to the newer Mahayana traditions that the stricter vegetarian diets
came, and eventually made its way into the culture of modern Buddhist lay persons.
From the Fan-wang-jing text:
A son of the Buddha shall not eat the flesh of
any sentient beings. If he eats their flesh, he shall cut off great compassion,
as well as the seed of Buddhahood within him. (4)
So we see that the vegetarian
diet is followed in both major Buddhist traditions (Theravada and Mahayana), but
that slightly different measures are taken to achieve this.
Vegetarianism,
"a natural and logical ramification of the moral precept against the taking
of life" (5) is a diet that includes no animal meat. In modern terms, we
might use the word "vegan" to describe the strict Mahayana diet. The
term "vegan" refers to one that does not eat any animals, but also any
animal products or derivatives, including milk, cheese, honey; or using animal
furs, leathers, skins, etc. The Buddha recommended that pure Bodhisattvas follow
this ideal:
[they] who do not wear silk, leather boots, furs, or down ...and
who do not consume milk, cream, or butter, can truly transcend this world. Both
physically and mentally one must avoid the bodies and the by-products of beings,
by neither wearing them or eating them. I say that such people have true liberation.
(6)
The Buddhist term ahimsa is now being adopted by many secular vegans. Ahimsa
refers to the compassionate, non-violent treatment of animals and all sentient
beings. Not only does the practice of ahimsa keep the Buddhist on the right path,
it also enforces a "better life and better health". (7)
Killing
or eating meat breaks several rules at one time. One who does harms other sentient
beings and restricts their path/chance to gain enlightenment/nirvana. One also
hurts one's self since all beings are a part of one whole. One also spreads the
bad killing karma, which will later cause one suffering, or propagate more killing.
One also enforces the suffering caused by the cycle of death and rebirth.
All
sentient beings desire to live. All animals try to escape when being killed for
food;
Like a fish which is thrown on dry land, taken from his home in the
waters, the mind strives and struggles to get free from the power of Death. (8)
When
one kills an animal, either directly or indirectly by requesting the meat, s/he
is taking the life of a living being (or beings). So to the Buddhist, a butcher
is the worst trade. However, as a consumer, purposefully buying or consuming animals
is a part of the killing process. By creating demand, it is the same as killing
the sentient beings yourself. Doing so goes against the "highest and most
universal ideal of Buddhism, [to] work unceasingly for permanent end to the suffering
of all living beings, not just humans". (9)
Eating meat causes two kinds
of suffering: the immediate suffering for the animal that is being slaughtered,
and the suffering caused by the cycle of death and rebirth. When a sentient being
dies, it is forced to begin again the painful process of rebirth. The only way
to stop this cycle is to reach full enlightenment. Since it is possible for animals
to become enlightened, killing them deprives them of that chance.
The Western
notion of the individual self (or shall we say "selfish individual")
is distinctly "un"-Buddhist:
He who lives only for pleasures, and
whose soul is not in harmony, who considers not the food he eats, is idle, and
has not the power of virtue - such a man is moved by MARA (evil one), is moved
by selfish temptations, even as a weak tree is shaken by the wind. (10)
In
Buddhism, one cares for other beings as s/he does for one's self - they are interconnected,
a part of one whole. The Buddha taught that all sentient beings are really a part
of one original whole organism. Therefore, when one kills another, they are actually
killing a part of themselves. They are also killing a part of their parents (also
forbidden in Buddhism). So, in effect, eating meat is suicidal!
We affect
and are affected by one collective karma. Karma works sort of like a bank account.
Beings that have caused bad karma are reborn as lesser beings (animals, demons);
those who follow the moral precepts and spread good karma will be reborn as higher
beings (gods, humans). When lesser beings pay off their "debts", they
can be reborn as humans. Since human beings are in the best position for enlightenment,
this is the most desired level. As the Buddha explained,
if in the process
of repayment the lives of other beings were taken or their flesh eaten, then it
will start a cycle of mutual devouring and slaughtering that will send the debtors
and creditors up and down endlessly. (11)
When we kill, we increase and perpetuate
the bad karma of the killing karma. This bad karma will come back to us in this
life or the next, but certainly has a more immediate affect on the being that
we have just killed. Spreading the killing karma affects the whole so much that
it collects and perpetuates, eventually leading to wars in the future.
When
a person dies, their soul can split up into several animals - a flock of sheep,
a hive of bees, a hill of ants, etc. When one takes the life of one of these animals,
they are actually taking part of the life of the human that once was. The Shurangama
Sutra tells how a person who eats a sheep may become a sheep in the next life,
and how the sheep might become a person. In a repetitive cycle, "they eat
each other" (Shurangama Sutra, 80). There is no hierarchy of sentient beings;
although each are at different levels, they are equally important. So, killing
an animal is really an act of murder; eating the animal is cannibalism. Following
this line of belief, we can see why many Buddhists practice liberating animals,
or saving animals that are destined to be slaughtered. The Buddha recommended
this practice:
Whenever a Bodhisattva sees a person preparing to kill an animal,
he should devise a skillful method to rescue and protect it, freeing it from its
suffering and difficulties. (12)
(One theory for the rapidly increasing human
overpopulation is that due to modern mass market meat, animal testing, industrialization
and science, we are killing more animals than ever before. These beings that are
killed may come back as humans, thus increasing the human population).
I have
briefly summarized the reasons behind the Buddhist diet, founded on the moral
precepts. I urge the reader to consider these ideas; as Dharmachari Saaramati
adds,
Buddhists and non-Buddhists alike - have only begun to fully appreciate
what this tradition can add to current efforts to transform our attitudes towards
the world in which we live. (13)
There are other restrictions involving diet
that vary from sect to sect, like proper times and amounts of food that can be
eaten, forbidance of raw foods; but the observance of a diet that does not violate
the moral precept of no killing is most important and universal.
Food, and
the guidelines involving it, play significant roles in the Buddhist tradition.
The Buddha talks about how in a past life he had to "eat the grain meant
for horses" (6) to pay a karma debt. One unusual passage in the Shurangama
Sutra tells how the Buddha created "pure meat...a transformation brought
into being by my spiritual powers. It basically has no life-force". (6) It
is believed that the Buddha himself actually died from food poisoning.
The
ironic paradox of my topic is that in Buddhism - food, eating, and taste are all
illusions in the first place, not a part of our true seeing nature. But our true
seeing nature is distorted by our ignorance, which is caused by the cycle of death
and rebirth. All suffering stems from this cycle. And so, ahimsa, the compassionate
treatment of animals; and the resulting Buddhist vegetarian diet, are essential
to the ending of all suffering and ignorance; and a mandatory practice in the
quest for true enlightenment for ourselves and all living beings.
Notes
(1)
Epstein, Dr. Ron, Buddhism A-Z, selection: "Five Contemplations While Eating".
http://online.sfsu.edu/~rone/Buddhism/Buddhism.htm
[http://userwww.sfsu.edu/~rone/Buddhist%20Dict/BD%20D%20to%20G.htm]
(2) Shurangama Sutra, p.182, translation Buddhist Text Translation Society,
see: [http://online.sfsu.edu/~rone/Buddhism/Shurangama/Shurangama.htm]
(3)
Shurangama Sutra, p.232, translation Buddhist Text Translation Society, see: [http://online.sfsu.edu/~rone/Buddhism/Shurangama/Shurangama.htm]
(4) Eijo. Buddhism & Vegetarianism. published on [http://www.ccil.org/~cneal/veg.html]
(5) Epstein, Dr. Ron, Buddhism A-Z, selection: "Vegetarianism"
[http://userwww.sfsu.edu/~rone/Buddhist%20Dict/BD%20P%20to%20Z.htm]
(6) Shurangama Sutra, p.145-7, translation Buddhist Text Translation Society,
see: [http://online.sfsu.edu/~rone/Buddhism/Shurangama/Shurangama.htm]
(7)
Wu Hung Bhiksu, "The Buddhist Perspective on Animals and Life Conservation...",
[http://online.sfsu.edu/~rone/Buddhism/Buddhist%20Perspective%20on%20Animals.htm]
(8) Dhammapada. p. 34, from [http://www.ncf.carleton.ca/~bp239/dhamma.html]
(9) Epstein, A Buddhist Perspective on Animal Rights,
[http://userwww.sfsu.edu/~rone/Buddhism%20and%20Animal%20Rights.htm]
(10) Dhammapada. p. 7, from [http://www.ncf.carleton.ca/~bp239/dhamma.html]
(11) Shurangama Sutra, p.205, translation Buddhist Text Translation Society,
see: [http://online.sfsu.edu/~rone/Buddhism/Shurangama/Shurangama.htm]
(12)
Epstein, Dr. Ron, Buddhism A-Z, selection: "liberating living beings"
[http://userwww.sfsu.edu/~rone/Buddhist%20Dict/BD%20H%20to%20O.htm]
(13)
Sponberg, Alan, "The Buddhist Conception of an Ecological Self", [http://www.fwbo.org/wbr/vol2/ecological_self.html]
(14) Long Discourses of the Buddha, translated by Maurice Walshe. Wisdom Publications,
Somerville, Mass. 1995.
Michael Ohlsson is a student at San Francisco State University. He can be reached at mohlsson@sfsu.edu.