No Soul (Anattá) - Pancakkhandha
According to Buddhism, apart from mind and matter, which constitute this so-called being, there is no immortal soul or an eternal ego which man is either gifted with or has obtained in a mysterious way from a mysterious Being or force.
The Buddhist doctrine of rebirth should be distinguished from the theory of re-incarnation or transmigration, for Buddhism denies the existence of an unchanging or eternal soul. In the ultimate sense a Buddhist cannot think of an unchanging soul, any being in the form of a Deva, a man, or an animal. These forms are merely the temporary manifestations of the Kammic force.
"Being" is only a concept used for conventional purposes. If nothing in the form of a spirit or soul passes from this life to the other, what is it that is reborn? In asking this question one takes for granted that there is something to be reborn.
In the past it was argued - "Cogito, ergo sum - I think, therefore I am." True indeed, but it has to be proved first that there is an 'I' to think. I say that there is no I to think. In one breath I contradict myself. Yes, it has to be admitted that we cannot avoid using conventional terms we say that the sun rises in the east and sets in the west despite what scientists prove to us.
We cannot strike a place twice although to all appearance we have done so. Everything has changed so soon. Even space has changed at the second moment.
According to Buddhism the so-called being is composed of mind and matter - Nama and Rupa.
Rupa or matter is merely the manifestation of forces and qualities. In the ancient days the Indian sages too believed in an indivisible atom - Paramanu. The Buddha analyzed this so-called indivisible Paramanu and declared that it is only a manifestation of inter-related forces, which he termed Paramatthas or fundamental units of matter.
These Paramatthas are Pathavi, Apo, Tejo, and Vayo. Pathavi means the element of extension, the substratum of matter. Apo is the element of cohesion. Tejo is the element of heat. Vayo is the element of motion.
The four essentials of matter are invariably combined with four derivatives, color - Vanna, odor - Gandha, taste - Rasa and nutritive essence Oja. The four elements and the derivatives are inseparable and inter-related, but one element may preponderate over the other, for instance, the element of extension predominates in earth; cohesion in water, heat in fire, and motion in air.
Mind, which is the most important part in the machinery of man, is also a compound of fleeting mental states. There are fifty-two such mental states. Vedana or sensation is one, Sañña or perception is another. The remaining fifty mental states are collectively called Sankhárás or volitional activities. These immaterial states arise in a consciousness - Vinnana.
Thus the so-called being is a complex compound of five Aggregate - Pancakkhandha - namely, Rupa or matter, Vedana or sensations, Sañña or perceptions, Sankhárá or mental states, and Vinnana or consciousness, which are in state of constant flux.
One's individuality is the combination of these five Aggregates. There is no permanent soul that resides in this so-called being.
How Is Rebirth Possible Without A Soul To Be Reborn?
Birth is simply the arising of the Khandhas, the aggregates Rebirth is the arising of the aggregates again and again. Just as the arising of a physical state is conditioned by a preceding state as its cause, even so the coming-into-being of this psychophysical life is conditioned by causes anterior to its birth. As one life-process is possible without a permanent thing passing from one thought-moment to another, a series of life-processes is possible without anything to transmigrate from one life to another.
This body - to use conventional terms - dies transmitting its Kammic force to another without anything transmigrating from this life to the other. The future being there will be conditioned by the present Kamma here. The new being is neither absolutely the same as its predecessor - since the composition is not identical - nor entirely another being the same stream of Kammic energy. There is, therefore, a continuity of a particular life-flux; just that and nothing more.
Chapter 13
The Four Noble Truths
Truth is that which is Sacca. It is an incontrovertible fact. According to Buddhism there are four such Truths - all associated with man.
In the Rohitassa Sutta the Buddha states: - "In this very one-fathom long body, along with its perceptions and thoughts, I proclaim the world, the origin ot the world, the cessation of the world, and the Path leading to the cessation of the world."
This interesting passage refers to the Four Noble Truths, which the Buddha Himself discovered. Whether Buddhas arise or not, they exist, and it is a Buddha that reveals them to the ignorant world.
These truths are in Pali termed Ariya Saccani because they were discovered by the Greatest Ariya, that is, one who is far removed from passions, or because they lead to the Ariyan state of passionless ness.
The first Truth deals with Dukkha, which, for need of better English equivalent, is inappropriately rendered by suffering. As a feeling Dukkha means that which is difficult to be endured (Du-difficult, Kha - to endure). Here Dukkha is used in the sense of contemptible (Du) emptiness (Kha) The world rests on suffering (Dukkhe loko palitthito) - hence It is contemptible. It is devoid of any reality - hence it is empty or void.
Average men are only surface-seers. An Ariyan sees things as they truly are. To one who sees, there is no real happiness in this sorrowful world, which deceives mankind with illusory pleasures. What we call happiness is merely the gratification of some desire. "No sooner is the desired thing gained then it begins to be scorned." Insatiate is all desires. All are subject to birth - jati, and consequently to decay-jara, disease- vyadhi, and death - marana. No one is exempt from these four causes of suffering.
Impeded wish is also suffering. We do not wish to come in contact with persons or things we do not like, nor do we wish to be separated from persons or things we like most. But our wishes are not always fulfilled. What we least expect or what we least desire is often thrust on us. At times such unpleasant circumstances become so intolerable and painful that weak ignorant folks are compelled to put an end to their lives.
In brief, this body itself is a cause of suffering. Buddhism rests on this pivot of suffering. But it does not allow that Buddhism is pessimism. It is neither totally pessimistic nor totally optimistic. On the contrary it teaches a truth that lies midway between them. Whilst emphasizing the truth of suffering, the Buddha suggests a means to get rid of this suffering and gain the Highest Happiness.
The cause of this suffering is Craving, which is the second Noble Truth.
The Dhammapada states:-
"From craving springs grief,
from craving springs fear;
For him who is wholly free from craving,
there is no grief, whence fear?"
Suffering exists as long as there is craving or attachment - Tanha. There are three kinds of craving. The first is the grossest form of craving, which is simple attachment to all sensual pleasures Kamatanha. The second is attachment to pleasures connected with the view of Eternalism - Bhavatanha, the third is that which is connected with the view of Nihilism - Vibhavatanha.
It is this gross and subtle craving that leads to repeated births in Samsara and that which makes one cling to all forms of life.
This craving is so powerful a force that one has to summon eight equally powerful) forces (the Eightfold Path) to overpower this one single foe. The grossest forms of craving are first weakened on attaining Sakadagami and are eradicated on attaining Anagami. The subtle forms of craving are eradicated only on attaining Arahantship.
The Third Noble Truth is the complete Cessation of suffering, which is Nibbána, the Bliss Supreme. It is achieved by the total eradication of all forms of craving. The Fourth Noble Truth is the Path leading to the Cessation of suffering, which is the Noble Eightfold Path, the via media - the golden mean - of the Buddha.
The first two are mundane - lokiya, the second two are supra-mundane - lokuttara.
The first three deals with the philosophy of the Buddha's Teaching and the fourth with the practice in accordance with that philosophy.
Buddhism as such is neither an ordinary philosophy nor an ordinary ethical system. It is a moral and philosophical teaching, founded on the bedrock of facts that can be tested and verified by personal experience.
Strictly speaking, Buddhism cannot be called a religion either, because it is not a system of faith and worship, which emphasizes the existence of a supernatural God. If by religion is meant a teaching (Agama) which distinguishes between right and wrong, and which furnishes men with a guide to proper conduct, then it is a religion of religions.
Chapter 14
Nibbána:
[Nibbána is the summum bonum of Buddhism]
Definition:
The Pali word Nibbána (Sanskrit Nirvana) is composed of "Ni" and "Vana." Ni is a particle implying negation. Vana means weaving or craving. It is this craving which acts as a cord to connect one life with another.
"It is called Nibbána in that it is a 'departure' (ni) from that craving which is called Vana, lusting."
As long as one is bound up by craving, one accumulates fresh Kammic forces, which must materialize in one form or other in the eternal cycle of birth and death. When all forms of craving are extirpated, Kammic forces cease to operate, and one attains Nibbána escaping the cycle of birth and death. The Buddhist conception of Deliverance in this escape from the ever recurring cycle of life and death which is not merely an escape from sin and hell.
Nibbána is also explained as the extinction of the fire of lust - Lobha, hatred - Dosa, and delusion - Moha.
Is Nibbána Nothingness?
To say that Nibbána is nothingness simply because one cannot perceive it with the five senses, is as illogical as to say that light does not exist simply because the blind do not see it. In the well-known fable the fish who was acquainted only with water arguing with the turtle, triumphantly concluded that there existed no land, because he received 'no' to all his queries. The turtle, though acquainted with both sea and land, could not explain to the fish the real nature of land.' The fish too could not grasp what land was as it was acquainted the water. In the same way the Arahants, who are acquainted with mundane and the supra-mundane cannot define exactly what supra-mundane is by mundane terms, nor can a worldling understand the supra-mundane merely by mundane knowledge. It is a supra-mundane state, which is to be realized by one's own intuitive knowledge.
What Nibbána is not, one can definitely say. What it precisely is, one cannot adequately express in conventional terms. It is for self-realization.
Sopadisesa and Anupadisesa Nibbána Dhatu
These are not two kinds of Nibbána, but one single Nibbána receiving its name according to the way it is experienced before and after death,
Nibbána is attainable in this present life. Buddhism does not state that its ultimate goal could be reached only in a life beyond. When Nibbána is realized in this life with the body remaining, it is called Sopadisesa Nibbána Dharu. When an Arahant attains Parinibbána, after the dissolution of the body, without any remainder of physical existence, it is called Anupadisesa Nibbána Dhatu.
Three Distinct Characteristics of Nibbána
Contrasting Nibbána with Samsara, the Buddha says that the former is eternal - Dhuva, desirable - Subha and happy - Sukha.
According to Buddhism everything cosmic, and hypercosmic is classed under two divisions - namely, things conditioned by causes - Sankhata and things not conditioned by any cause-Asankhata.
Nibbána is not conditioned by any cause, Hence there is neither an arising nor a passing away. It is birth less, decay less, and deathless. It is neither a cause nor an effect. All conditioned things - and to this category belongs everything in this universe - are, on the contrary, constantly changing without remaining for two consecutive moments the same.
Everything that has sprung from a cause must inevitably pass away, and as such is undesirable-Asubha.
That which is transient and undesirable certainly cannot be happy - Sukha. Nibbána, being non-conditioned, that which has not arisen from a cause, is, in contradistinction to phenomenal existence, eternal, desirable, and happy.
The happiness of Nibbána should be differentiated from ordinary happiness. Nibbanic bliss arises as the result of calming down passions - Vupasama, unlike the worldly happiness, which results from the gratification of some desire - Vedayita.
In conventional terms the Buddha says-Nibbanam paramam sukham - Nibbána is the highest bliss.
It is bliss supreme because it is not a kind of happiness that is experienced by the senses. It is a positive blissful state of relief.
The very fact of the cessation of suffering is ordinarily termed happiness, which too is not an appropriate word to depict its real nature.
Where is Nibbána?
"Just as fire is not stored up in any particular place but arises when the necessary conditions exist, so Nibbána is not said co be existing in a particular place, but is attained when the necessary conditions are fulfilled."
In the Rohitassa Sutta the Buddha says;-"In this very one fathom-long body, along with its perceptions and thoughts, do I proclaim the world, the origin of the world, the cessation of the world, and the path leading to the cessation of the world."
Here world means suffering. The cessation of the World, therefore, means the cessation of suffering, which is Nibbána,
One's Nibbána is dependent upon this one-fathom body, It is not something that created itself, nor is it something to be created.
Nibbána is not a sort of heaven where a transcendental ego resides, but an attainment (Dhamma), which is within the reach of all.
What attains Nibbána?
This question must necessarily be set aside as irrelevant, for Buddhism denies the existence of a permanent entity or an immortal soul. As right now and here there is neither a permanent ego nor an identical being, it is needless to say that there is no 'I' in Nibbána.
The Visuddhi Magga states-
"Misery only doth exist, none miserable;
nor doer is there,
nought save the deed is found;
Nibbána is, but the man who seeks it
The path exists, but not the traveler on it."
The chief difference between the Buddhist and the Hindu conception of Nibbána lies in the fact that Buddhists view their goal without an eternal soul and creator, whilst Hindus do.
This is the reason why Buddhism can neither be called Eternalism nor Nihilism. In Nibbána nothing is eternalized, nor is anything annihilated.
As Sir Edwin Arnold says:-
"If any teach Nirvana is to cease,
Say unto such they lie
If any teach Nirvana is to live,
Say unto such they err,"
The Light of Asia
Chapter 15
The Noble Eighfold Path
The Noble Eightfold Path (Ariya Atthangika Magga), discovered by the Buddha Himself, is the only way to Nibbána. It avoids the extreme of self-mortification that weakens one's intellect, and the extreme of self-indulgence that retards one's spiritual progress.
It consists of the following eight factors: -
Right Understanding - Samma Ditthi
Right Thoughts - Samma Sankappa
Right Speech - Samma Vaca
Right Action - Samma Kammanta
Right Livelihood - Samma A jiva
Right Effort - Samma Vayama
Right Mindfulness - Samma Sati
Right Concentration - Samma Samadhi
1. Right Understanding is the knowledge of the Four Noble Truths. In other words it is the understanding of oneself as one really is. The keynote of Buddhism is this Right Understanding. Buddhism as such is based on knowledge and not on unreasonable belief.
2. Right thoughts are threefold. They are the Thoughts of Renunciation - Nekkhamma Sankappa, which are opposed to lustful desires. Benevolent Thoughts - Avyapada Sankappa, which are opposed to ill-will, and Thoughts of Harmlessness (Avihimsa Sankappa) which are opposed to cruelty. These tend to purify the mind.
3. Right speech deals with refraining from falsehood, slandering, harsh words; and frivolous talks.
4. Right Action deals with refraining from killing, stealing, and un-chastity.
5. Right livelihood deals with the five kinds of trades, which should be avoided by a lay disciple. They are trading in arms, human beings, flesh (that is, breeding animals for slaughter), intoxicating drinks, and poison. Hypocritical conduct is cited as wrong livelihood for monks.
6. Right Effort is fourfold - namely,
i. the endeavor to discard evil that has already arisen,
ii the endeavor to prevent the arising of un-risen evil,
iii the endeavor to develop un-risen good, and
iv the endeavor to promote that good which has already arisen.
7. Right Mindfulness is also fourfold. It is the mindfulness with regard to body, sensations, mind, and Dhamma (Phenomena).
8. Right Concentration is the one-pointed ness of the mind.
The first two are grouped in Wisdom - Paññá, the second three in Morality - Síla, and the last three in Concentration - Samadhi.
{Right Speech
Síla {Right Action
{Right Livelihood
{Right Effort
Samadhi {Right Mindfulness
{Right Concentration
{Right Understanding
Paññá {Right Thoughts
Strictly speaking these factors that comprise the Noble Eightfold Path signify eight mental properties (Cetasikas) collectively found in the four classes of Supra-mundane Consciousness whose object is Nibbána.
According to the order of development Síla, Samadhi, and Paññá are the three stages of the Path. All these stages are embodied in the following beautiful verse:-
Sabba Papassa Akaranam
Kusalassa Upasampada
Sacitta Pariyodapanam
Etam Buddhana Sasanam
To cease from all evil,
To do what is good,
To cleanse one's mind:,
This is the advice of all the Buddhas.
Síla or Morality is the first stage.
Without killing or causing injury to any living being, the aspirant should be kind and compassionate towards all. Refraining from stealing, he should be upright and honest in all his dealings. Abstaining from sexual misconduct, he should be pure and chaste. Shunning false speech, he should be truthful. Avoiding pernicious drinks that pro-mote heedlessness, he should be sober and diligent.
Every follower of the Buddha is expected to observe these five principles of regulated behavior daily. As circumstances permit he may advance a step further and observe the eight or even the ten precepts.
Whilst he progresses slowly and steadily with regulated word and deed and sense-restraint, the Kammic force of this striving aspirant compels him to renounce worldly pleasures and adopt the ascetic life. Realizing the vanity of worldly pleasures, he voluntarily forsakes his earthly possessions, and donning the ascetic garb, tries to lead the Holy Life in all its purity. It should be understood that it is not absolutely necessary to retire apart and lead the life of an ascetic to be a Saint.
The life of a Bhikkhu expedites and facilitates spiritual progress, but even as a layman one could attain Sainthood. There are several instances of laymen who realized Nibbána without renouncing the world. Anathapindika and Visakha were Sotapannas, the Sakya Mahanama was a Sakadagami, the potter Ghatikara was an Anagami and King Suddhodana died as an Arahant. In the role of a Bhikkhu the aspirant leads a life of voluntary poverty and practices the four kinds of Higher Síla - Discipline as prescribed by the Patimokkha, Sense-Restraint, Purity of Conduct connected with livelihood and Conduct in connection with the necessaries of life.
Securing a firm footing on the ground of Síla, he then embarks upon the higher practice of Samadhi, the control and culture of the mind, the second stage of this path. Samadhi is the one-pointed ness of the mind.
When he gains this perfect one-pointed ness of the mind, it is possible to develop the five Supernormal Powers - Abhinna, namely, Divine Eye - Dibbacakkhu, Divine Ear - Dibbasota, Reminiscence of past births - Pubbenivasanussati Nana. Thought Reading - Paracittavijanana and different psychic powers - Iddhividha. It must not be understood that these supernormal powers are essential for Sainthood.
Though the mind is purified, there still lies dormant in him the tendency to give vent to his passions, for by concentration passions are only lulled to sleep. They may rise to the surface at unexpected moments.
Both Discipline and Concentration are essential, but it is Insight - Vipassana Paññá that enables one to see things as they truly are. This is the final stage on the path to Nibbána.
With his one-pointed mind he looks at the world to get a correct, view of life. He now meditates on the Three Characteristics - Tilakkhana, Transiency - Anicca, Sorrow - Dukkha and Soulnessness -Anattá. He comprehends that all conditioned things are transient - Sabbe Sankhara Anicca, all conditioned things are sorrowful - Sabbe Sankhara Dukkha, and all things conditioned and non-conditioned are soulless - Sabbe Dhamma Anattá. Of these three characteristics he takes the one that appeals to him most and intently keeps on developing insight in that particular direction until that glorious day comes to him when he would realize Nibbána for the first time in his life, having destroyed the first three Fetters - Samyojana - Self-illusion - Sakkaya Ditthi, Doubts - Vicikiccha, and Indulgence to wrongful rites and ceremonies - Silabbata-paramasa.
At this stage he is called a Sotapanna - one who has entered the Stream that leads to Nibbána. As he has not eradicated all Fetters he is reborn seven times at the most.
Summoning up fresh courage as a result of this distant glimpse of Nibbána, he cultivates deeper Insight and becomes a Sakadagami - Once-Returner - by weakening two more Fetters - namely, Sense-desires - Kamaraga and Ill will - Patigha. He is called a Sakadagami because he is reborn on earth only once in case he does not attain Arahantship.
It is in the third stage of Sainthood - Anagami - Never-Returner that he completely discards the above two Fetters. Thereafter he neither returns to this world nor does he seek birth in the celestial realms, since he has no more desire for sensual pleasures. After death he is reborn in the "Pure Abodes" (Suddhavasa), a congenial place meant exclusively for Anagamins and Arahants.
Now the earnest pilgrim, encouraged by the unprecedented success of his endeavors, makes his final advance and destroying the remaining five Fetters:-
Attachment to Realms of Forms - Ruparaga, Attachment to Formless Realms - Aruparaga, Conceit - Mana, Restlessness - Uddhacca, and Ignorance - Avijja - becomes a Perfect Saint by attaining Arahantship.
Thereafter he lives as long as his Reproductive Kammic force lasts. On the dissolution of the body he attains Parinibbána.
Chapter 15
The Noble Eightfold Path
The Noble Eightfold Path (Ariya Atthangika Magga), discovered by the Buddha Himself, is the only way to Nibbána. It avoids the extreme of self-mortification that weakens one's intellect, and the extreme of self-indulgence that retards one's spiritual progress.
It consists of the following eight factors: -
Right Understanding - Samma Ditthi
Right Thoughts - Samma Sankappa
Right Speech - Samma Vaca
Right Action - Samma Kammanta
Right Livelihood - Samma A jiva
Right Effort - Samma Vayama
Right Mindfulness - Samma Sati
Right Concentration - Samma Samadhi
1. Right Understanding is the knowledge of the Four Noble Truths. In other words it is the understanding of oneself as one really is. The keynote of Buddhism is this Right Understanding. Buddhism as such is based on knowledge and not on unreasonable belief.
2. Right thoughts are threefold. They are the Thoughts of Renunciation - Nekkhamma Sankappa, which are opposed to lustful desires. Benevolent Thoughts - Avyapada Sankappa, which are opposed to ill will, and Thoughts of Harmlessness (Avihimsa Sankappa) which are opposed to cruelty. These tend to purify the mind.
3. Right speech deals with refraining from falsehood, slandering, harsh words; and frivolous talks.
4. Right Action deals with refraining from killing, stealing, and un-chastity.
5. Right livelihood deals with the five kinds of trades, which should be avoided by a lay disciple. They are trading in arms, human beings, flesh (that is, breeding animals for slaughter), intoxicating drinks, and poison. Hypocritical conduct is cited as wrong livelihood for monks.
6. Right Effort is fourfold - namely,
i. The endeavor to discard evil that has already arisen,
ii the endeavor to prevent the arising of un-risen evil,
iii the endeavor to develop un-risen good, and
iv the endeavor to promote that good which has already arisen.
7. Right Mindfulness is also fourfold. It is the mindfulness with regard to body, sensations, mind, and Dhamma (Phenomena).
8. Right Concentration is the one-pointed ness of the mind.
The first two are grouped in Wisdom - Paññá, the second three in Morality - Síla, and the last three in Concentration - Samadhi.
{Right Speech
Síla {Right Action
{Right Livelihood
{Right Effort
Samadhi {Right Mindfulness
{Right Concentration
{Right Understanding
Paññá {Right Thoughts
Strictly speaking these factors that comprise the Noble Eightfold Path signify eight mental properties (Cetasikas) collectively found in the four classes of Supra-mundane Consciousness whose object is Nibbána.
According to the order of development Síla, Samadhi, and Paññá are the three stages of the Path. All these stages are embodied in the following beautiful verse:
Sabba Papassa Akaranam
Kusalassa Upasampada
Sacitta Pariyodapanam
Etam Buddhana Sasanam
To cease from all evil,
To do what is good,
To cleanse one's mind:,
This is the advice of all the Buddhas.
Síla or Morality is the first stage.
Without killing or causing injury to any living being, the aspirant should be kind and compassionate towards all. Refraining from stealing, he should be upright and honest in all his dealings. Abstaining from sexual misconduct, he should be pure and chaste. Shunning false speech, he should be truthful. Avoiding pernicious drinks that pro-mote heedlessness, he should be sober and diligent.
Every follower of the Buddha is expected to observe these five principles of regulated behavior daily. As circumstances permit he may advance a step further and observe the eight or even the ten precepts.
Whilst he progresses slowly and steadily with regulated word and deed and sense-restraint, the Kammic force of this striving aspirant compels him to renounce worldly pleasures and adopt the ascetic life. Realizing the vanity of worldly pleasures, he voluntarily forsakes his earthly possessions, and donning the ascetic garb, tries to lead the Holy Life in all its purity. It should be understood that it is not absolutely necessary to retire apart and lead the life of an ascetic to be a Saint.
The life of a Bhikkhu expedites and facilitates spiritual progress, but even as a layman one could attain Sainthood. There are several instances of laymen who realized Nibbána without renouncing the world. Anathapindika and Visakha were Sotapannas, the Sakya Mahanama was a Sakadagami, the potter Ghatikara was an Anagami and King Suddhodana died as an Arahant. In the role of a Bhikkhu the aspirant leads a life of voluntary poverty and practices the four kinds of Higher Síla - Discipline as prescribed by the Patimokkha, Sense-Restraint, Purity of Conduct connected with livelihood and Conduct in connection with the necessaries of life.
Securing a firm footing on the ground of Síla, he then embarks upon the higher practice of Samadhi, the control and culture of the mind, the second stage of this path. Samadhi is the one-pointed ness of the mind.
When he gains this perfect one-pointed ness of the mind, it is possible to develop the five Supernormal Powers - Abhinna, namely, Divine Eye - Dibbacakkhu, Divine Ear - Dibbasota, Reminiscence of past births - Pubbenivasanussati Nana. Thought Reading - Paracittavijanana and different psychic powers - Iddhividha. It must not be understood that these supernormal powers are essential for Sainthood.
Though the mind is purified, there still lies dormant in him the tendency to give vent to his passions, for by concentration passions are only lulled to sleep. They may rise to the surface at unexpected moments.
Both Discipline and Concentration are essential, but it is Insight - Vipassana Paññá that enables one to see things as they truly are. This is the final stage on the path to Nibbána.
With his one-pointed mind he looks at the world to get a correct, view of life. He now meditates on the Three Characteristics - Tilakkhana, Transiency - Anicca, Sorrow - Dukkha and Soulnessness -Anattá. He comprehends that all conditioned things are transient - Sabbe Sankhara Anicca, all conditioned things are sorrowful - Sabbe Sankhara Dukkha, and all things conditioned and non-conditioned are soulless - Sabbe Dhamma Anattá. Of these three characteristics he takes the one that appeals to him most and intently keeps on developing insight in that particular direction until that glorious day comes to him when he would realize Nibbána for the first time in his life, having destroyed the first three Fetters - Samyojana - Self-illusion - Sakkaya Ditthi, Doubts - Vicikiccha, and Indulgence to wrongful rites and ceremonies - Silabbata-paramasa.
At this stage he is called a Sotapanna - one who has entered the Stream that leads to Nibbána. As he has not eradicated all Fetters he is reborn seven times at the most.
Summoning up fresh courage as a result of this distant glimpse of Nibbána, he cultivates deeper Insight and becomes a Sakadagami - Once-Returner - by weakening two more Fetters - namely, Sense-desires - Kamaraga and Ill will - Patigha. He is called a Sakadagami because he is reborn on earth only once in case he does not attain Arahantship.
It is in the third stage of Sainthood - Anagami - Never-Returner that he completely discards the above two Fetters. Thereafter he neither returns to this world nor does he seek birth in the celestial realms, since he has no more desire for sensual pleasures. After death he is reborn in the "Pure Abodes" (Suddhavasa), a congenial place meant exclusively for Anagamins and Arahants.
Now the earnest pilgrim, encouraged by the unprecedented success of his endeavors, makes his final advance and destroying the remaining five Fetters:-
Attachment to Realms of Forms - Ruparaga, Attachment to Formless Realms - Aruparaga, Conceit - Mana, Restlessness - Uddhacca, and Ignorance - Avijja - becomes a Perfect Saint by attaining Arahantship.
Thereafter he lives as long as his Reproductive Kammic force lasts. On the dissolution of the body he attains Parinibbána.
Chapter 16
Nivarana Or Hindrances
Nivarana (Ni and var, to hinder, to obstruct) is that which hinders one's progress or that which obstructs the path to Emancipation and the heavenly states. It is also explained as that which "muffles, enwraps, or trammels thought".
There are five kinds of Nivaranas or Hindrances, they are:-
i. Sensual desire - Kamacchanda,
ii. Ill will - Vyapada,
iii. Sloth and Torpor - Thina-Middha,
iv. Restlessness and Worry - Uddhaccha-Kukkucca,
v. Doubts - Vicikiccha
1. Kamacchanda means sensual desire or attachment to pleasurable sense-objects such as form, sound, odor, taste, and contact. This is regarded as one of the Fetters that bind one to Samsara.
An average person is bound to get tempted by these alluring objects of sense. Lack of self-control results in the inevitable arising of passions. This Hindrance is inhibited by One-pointed-ness-Ekaggata, which is one of the five characteristics of Jhana. It is attenuated on attaining Sakadagami and completely eradicated on attaining Anagami. Subtle forms of attachment such as Rupa Raga and Arupa Raga (Attachment to Realms of Form and Formless Realms) are eradicated only on attaining Arahantship.
The six following conditions tend to the eradication of sense-desires:-
i. Perceiving the loathsomeness of the object,
ii. Constant meditation on loathsomeness,
iii. Sense-restraint,
iv. Moderation in food,
v. Good friendship, and
vi. Profitable talk.
2. Vyapada is ill will or aversion, A desirable object leads to attachment, whilst an undesirable one leads to aversion. These are the two great fires that burn the whole world, Aided by ignorance, these two produce all the suffering in the world. Ill will is inhibited by Piti or Joy, which is one of the Jhana factors. It is attenuated attaining Sakadagami, and eradicated on attaining Anagami.
The six following conditions lead to the eradication of ill will: -
i. Perceiving the object with thoughts of goodwill,
ii. Constant meditation on loving-kindness (Mettá)
iii. Thinking that Kamma is one's own,
iv. Adherence to that view,
v. good friendship, and
vi. Profitable talk.
3. Thina or Sloth is explained as a morbid state of the mind, and Middha as a morbid state of the mental properties. A stolid mind is as "inert as a bat hanging to a tree, or as molasses cleaving to a stick, or as a lump of butter too stiff for spreading." Sloth and torpor should not be understood as bodily drowsiness, because Arahants, who have destroyed these two states, also experience bodily fatigue. These two promote mental inertness and are opposed to strenuous effort - viriya. They are inhibited by the jhana factor, vitakka or initial application, and are eradicated on attaining Arahantship.
The six following conditions tend to the eradication of Sloth and Torpor:-
i. reflection on 'the object of moderation in food',
ii changing of bodily postures,
iii contemplation on the object of light (alokasanna),
iv living in the open air,
v good friendship, and
vi profitable talk.
4. Uddhacca is mental restlessness or excitement of the mind. It is a mental state associated with all types of immoral consciousness, As a rule an evil is done with some excitement or restlessness.
Kukkucca is worry. It is either repentance over the committed evil or over the unfulfilled good. Repentance over one's evil does not exempt one from its inevitable consequences. The best repentance is the will not to repeat that evil. Both these hindrances are inhibited by the Jhana factor, Sukka or happiness. Restlessness is eradicated on attaining Arahantship, and worry is eradicated on attaining Anagami.
The six following conditions tend to the eradication of these two states:-
i. Erudition or learning,
ii. Questioning or discussion,
iii. Understanding the nature or the Vinaya discipline,
iv. Association with senior monks,
v. Good friendship, and
vi. Profitable talk.
5. Vicikiccha is doubt or perplexity, That which is devoid of the remedy or wisdom is vicikiccha (vi = devoid; cikiccha = wisdom), It is also explained as vexation due to perplexed thinking (Vici = seeking; kiccha = vexation).
Here Vicikiccha is not used in the sense of doubt with regard to the Buddha etc for even non-Buddhists inhibit it and gain Jhanas. As a Fetter vicikiccha is certainly that doubt about the Buddha etc., but as a Hindrance it denotes indecision or unsteadiness in one particular thing that is being done. The Commentary explains vicikiccha as the inability to decide anything definitely that it is so.
This state is inhibited by the Jhana factor - vicara, sustained application - and is eradicated on attaining Sotapatti.
The six following conditions tend to its eradication:-
i. knowledge of the Dhamma and Vinaya,
ii. discussion or questioning,
iii. understanding of the nature of the Vinaya Discipline,
iv. excessive confidence,
v. good friendship, and
vi. profitable talk.
Chapter 17
The First Council
The Buddha passed away in His 8Oth year on the full-moon day of Vesak. His death was an irreparable loss. All His followers, with the exception of Anagamins and Arahants, were plunged in deep grief and were weeping and lamenting. But an immoral Bhikkhu named Subhadda, who had entered the Order in his old age, was the only one that rejoiced over His death.
"Grieve not brothers," said he. "Weep not. We are now delivered of that Great Ascetic. He constantly worried us, saying 'This is suitable, this is not suitable.' Now we are free to do what we like."
These unexpected words that fell from the lips of a disciple, when hardly a week has passed since the death of the Teacher, induced the Venerable Kassapa, the third chief Disciple of the Buddha to Hold a Council of Leading Arahants in order to protect and fortify the Sanana. The other Theras were consulted, and they welcomed the suggestions.
King Ajatasatu was informed of the intention of the Sangha, and he made al! the necessary arrangements for the Sangha to assemble at the entrance to the Sattapanni Cave in Rajagaha.
Five hundred seats were prepared in the spacious hall, but only Four hundred & Ninety Nine distinguished Arahants were chosen for the Convocation. The vacant seat was meant for the Venerable Ánanda who was then a Sotapanna. But in due time, as anticipated, he attained Arahantship and appeared on the scene by his psychic powers to occupy the vacant seat.
The Venerable Kassapa was the presiding Thera. The Venerable Upali and Ánanda were chosen to rehearse the Vinaya and Dhamma respectively.
The first council was held three months after the Parinibbána of the Buddha, in the eighth year of King Ajatasattu's reign. It lasted seven months.
Tipitaka
The Vinaya being the life-blood of the sasana was rehearsed first. It is composed of five books-namely,
I. Parajika Pali -Major Offences
II. Pacittiya Pali - Minor Offences
III. Mahavagga Pali - Greater Section
IV. Culavagga Pali - Smaller Section
V. Parivara Pali - Epitome of the Vinaya
The Dhamma consists of Five Nikáyas - namely,
I. Digha Nikáya - Collection of Long Discourses
II. Majjhima Nikáya - Collection of Middle-length Discourses
III. Samyutta Nikáya - Collection of Kindred
IV. Anguttara Nikáya - Collection of Discourses arranged in accordance with number
V. Khuddaka Nikáya - Smaller Collection
The fifth is subdivided into fifteen books:-
I. Khuddaka Patha - Shorter Texts
II. Dhammapada - Way of Truth
III. Udana - Paeans of Joy
IV. Iti Vuttaka - "Thus said" Discourses
V. Sutta Nipata - Collected Discourses
VI. Vimana vatthu - Stories of Celestial Mansions
VII. Peta vatthu - Stories of Petas
VIII. Theragatha- Psalms of the Brethren
IX. Therigatha- Psalms of the Sisters
X. Jataka - Birth Stories
XI. Niddesa - Expositions
XII. Patisambhida-Analytical Knowledge
XIII. Apadana - Lives of Arahants
XIV. Buddhavamsa - The History of the Buddha
XV. Cariya Pitaka - Modes of Conduct
It should be noted that the introductory words in every Sutta - "Evam me sutam, thus have I heard" - were uttered by the Venerable Ánanda Thera.
The Abhidhamma, according to tradition, was rehearsed by all Arahants that were present at the Convocation. It consists of the following seven books: -
I. Dhamma Sangani - Classification of Dhammas
II. Vibhanga - The Book of Divisions
III. Kathavatthu - Points of Controversy
IV. Puggala Pannani - Description of Individuals
V. Dhatukatha- Discussion with reference to Elements
VI. Yamaka - The Book of the Pairs
VII. Patthana - The Book of Relations
All these 31 books are collectively termed the Tipiraka (Three Baskets). The First Vinaya Piraka (Basket of Discipline) mainly deals with rules and regulations, which the Buddha promulgated, as occasion arose for the future discipline of the Order of Monks (Bhikkhus) and Nuns (Bhikkhunis).
The Sutta Pitaka (Basket of Discourses) Consists chiefly of discourses delivered by the Buddha on various occasions. Some discourses delivered by the Venerable Sariputta, Moggallana, Ánanda, etc., are also included in it. The Abhidhamma Pitaka
(Basket of Ultimate Doctrine) contains the profound philosophy of the Buddha's Teaching.
The Tipitaka was first committed in writing at Aluvihara in Sri Lanka about 80 B.C.E. in the reign of King Vacthagamani Abhaya.
The Second Council
The Second Council was held at Vesali in the tenth year of King Kalasoka's reign,100 years after the Parinibbana of the Buddha,
Ten Unlawful Points
At that time in Vesali many shameless Bhikkus of the Vajji clan claimed that the following ten points were not unlawful: -
1. Singilonakappa, it is fit to use salt in horns etc. in order to season unsalted foods.
2. Dvangulakappa, it is fit to eat food as long as the sun's shadow has not passed the meridian by more than two fingers' breadth,
3. Gamantarakappa, it is fit for a Bhikkhu who has already finished his meal to eat another meal without going through the due Vinaya rite if he intends to enter a village.
4. Avasakappa, it is fit to perform the Uposatha ceremony in separate buildings in the case of a large Sima (Jurisdiction).
5. Anumatikappa, it is fit to perform any Vinaya ceremony first and then take the consent of the absent Bhikkhus,
6. Acinnakappa, it is fit to conform to the practice of teachers and preceptors.
7. Amafhitakappa, it is fit for a Bhikkhu Who has finished his mea1 to drink that milk which has changed its original state but has not yet become curd, without getting the due Vinaya rite done.
8. Jalogikappa, it is fit to drink unfermented palm-wine.
9. Adasaka-nisidanakappa, it is fit to use mats without fringes.
10. Jatarupadikappa, it is fit to accept gold and silver,
Venerable Yasa, who came to hear of these heretical teachings, resolved even at the cost of his life to nip them in the bud. He succeeded. The Venerable Revata who was questioned about them pronounced that they were all unlawful.
Ultimately, in the presence of eight distinguished Arahants who had assembled at Valukarama in Vesali, the Venerable Sabbakami, the most senior Arahant, being One hundred and Twenty years from his Upasampada, questioned by the Venerable Revata, adjudged that they were all unlawful according to the Vinaya.
After which the venerable Revata chose Seven hundred distinguished Arahants to hold a Council in order to protect the Dhamma. This second council lasted eight months. King Kalasoka acted as the Royal Patron. The Venerable Sabbakami was the presiding Thera.
Amongst the assembled Arahants Sabbakami, Salha, Revata, Khujjasobhita, Yasa, Sambhuta and Sanavasika, all pupils of the Venerable Ánanda and Vasabhagamika and Sumana, pupils of the Venerable Anuruddha had the good fortune to live in the Buddha's own time.
The Third in Council
The conversion of King Dharmasoka was a very great asset to Buddhism. With his loyal patronage Buddhism flourish, and the Sasana gradually grew up in importance and numbers. Tempted by worldly gain, many undesirables of alien sects joined the Order and polluted the sasana by their corrupt lives and heretical views.
The Venerable Monggaliputta Tissa, who was then the senior Arahanat, being aware of the pollution of the Order, refrained from performing the Uposatha Ceremony with the Sangha for seven years, and was living in retirement on the banks of Ahoganga.
It was at this time King Dharmasoka entertained a doubt about thoughtless act done by an irresponsible minister. He was told that Arahant Moggaliputta Tissa would be able co clear his doubt. The King sent word to the Arahant, but he would not come. Failing twice, the third time he sent a messenger inviting him to come to protect the Sasana. The Venerable Thera accepted the invitation and arrived at Pataliputra. The King received him with due honor and accommodated him in Asokarama, built by the King himself. For seven days the King stayed with him, and studied the Dhamma sitting at his feet.
The Bhikkhus were then tested with regard to their views, and the undesirables were eliminated from the Noble Order, The pure Bhikkhus that remained performed the Uposatha for the first time after seven Years. The Arahant Moggaliputta Tissa availed himself of this opportunity to hold the third Council in order to protect the Dhamma and the Sasana. One Thousand Arahants participated in the Council which was held at Asokarama, in Pataliputra (Patna) in the 18th year of King Asoka's reign, about Two hundred, and Thirty Six years after the Parinibbána of the Buddha. The Venerable Moggaliputta Tissa was the presiding Thera, and it was he who was responsible for the composition of the Kathavatthu-Pakarana, one of the seven books of the Abhidhamma, at this august Assembly.
Chapter 18
Ashoka And His Missions
There reigned in the newly founded city of Patna (Pataliputra), a Mauryan king named Chandragupta. King Bindurasa was his son, and he had sixteen wives who bore him One hundred and One sons. Of them Ashoka was the most distinguished. His mother was Subhadrangi, also known as "Dharma", Sumana or Susima, who was his eldest stepbrother, Tissa, also called Vitasoka or Vigatasoka, was his younger uterine brother.
Ashoka's Family
Ashoka had five wives, whilst he was acting as vice-regent in Avanti, he married a Sakyan princess named Devi. Asandhimitra (Chief Queen), Padmavati and Tisyarashita were his other wives.
Ho had four sons and two daughters, Mahinda and Sanghamitta were the children of Devi. Tivasa was the son of Karuvaki, and Kunala was the son of Padmavati. He had another son named Jalauka and a daughter named Carumati.
Aggimukha, the husband of Sanghamitta, and Devapala Kshatriya of Lalipura in Nepal, the husband of Carumati, were his sons-in-law. Prince Dasaratha, who succeeded him, Sampati son of Kunala, and Sumana, son of Sanghamitta, were his grandsons.
Ashoka Becomes King
In he opinion of some scholars Ashoka was born in 304 B.C.E. to Pali Chronicle he was anointed King Two hundred and Eighteen years after Parinibbána of the Buddha, but his accession took place four years later. He reigned Thirty-Seven years after his coronation. He probably ascended the throne in his 30th year, and died in his Seventy-One year.
The Pali Chronicles state that Ashoka, in his ambition for supreme sovereignty, killed all his brother except his uterine brother Tissa, who later entered the Order and attained Arahantship. Some scholars do not accept this tradition as some Edicts prove that some of his brothers were still alive after his coronation.
Owing to his murderous attacks on his brothers and the indescribable suffering caused to many a family by his unjust wars, he was stigmatized Candasoka, Ashoka the Wicked. But after his conversion to Buddhism, he became such as exemplary monarch that his name was changed into Dharmasoka, Ashoka the Righteous. Devanampiya-Dear to the Gods, Piyadasi-Pleasant tot Behold, were some of his well-merited epithets.
His Conversion to Buddhism
In accordance with the custom of the royal household, King Ashoka regularly bestowed alms on the Brahmin priests. But he was not pleased with their demeanor. One day, whilst he was quite casually looking through the window, he was a dignified-looking young novice, about twelve years of age, quietly walking along the street with restrained senses. He was invited to the palace and was requested to occupy a suitable seat. Seeing no spiritual superior to him, he ascended the throne. The King thought "Assuredly he will be the head of this place.' He then entertained him with due honor, and taking a low seat listened to his exposition of the Dhamma. The young novice Nigrodha delivered an instructive discourse on the following stanza of the Dhammapada: -
"Heedfulness is the path to Deathlessness,
Heedfulness is the path to death.
The Heedful do not die,
The heedful are like unto the dead."
The word of the Buddha appealed to him, and he became a Buddhist. His conversion was the turning point of his career. Gradually he reformed himself. His outlook on life was completely changed, He modified his was and means. He preferred the Dharma Vijaya - righteous domination - to Dig Vijaya - word domination. Later in life he became such a devout and righteous monarch that H.G. Wells says: - "Amidst the ten thousand names of monarchs that crowd the columns of history, their majesties and graciousness and serenities and royal highnesses and the like, the name of Ashoka shines, and shines almost alone a star. From the Volga to Japan his name is still honored. Chine Tibet and even India, though it has left his doctrine, preserve the tradition of his greatness. More living men cherish his memory today than has ever heard the names of Constantine or Charlemagne."
Although he embraced Buddhism after meeting the novice Nigrodha, he did not give up his ambition of expending his empire. It was after the Kalinga war that he became a genuine Buddhist by abandoning all warfare. Wells says he is the only monarch on record who abandoned warfare after victory.
He thereafter became an ideal Buddhist monarch. With ceaseless energy he worked for the dissemination of the Dhamma, not only in India and other parts of Asia but also in Europe and Africa. He transformed Buddhism into a world religion. He made the important teaching of the Buddha popular by his numerous interesting rock edicts. He erected so many Viharas (monasteries) round about Patna (Pataliputra) that the whole province came to be known as Vihara sacred places connected with the life of the Buddha, and lasting monuments were erected to mark those historic spots. Even the slaughtering of animals in the palace for household consumption was gradually lessened and stopped, and he forbade animal sacrifice. As Pandit Nehru says - "Ashoka example and the spread of Buddhism resulted in vegetarianism becoming popular."
With his royal patronage Buddhism flourished in his time, but as a real Buddhism monarch he was tolerant towards all faiths. One edit says: -
" All sects deserve for some reason or other. By thus acting a man exalts his own sect and at the same time does service to the sects of other people."
Ashoka was interested not only in the spiritual development of the people but also in their material development. All his subjects he treated as sons. He was so willing and ready to promote the public good that he says:- "At all times and at all places, whether I am dining or in the ladies' apartments, in my bedroom or in my closet, in my carriage or in my palace garden, the official reporters should keep me constantly informed of the people's business. Work I must for the common weal".
True to his words he acted like a father to all. In his time public gardens, medicinal herbs, hospitals for both men and animals, wells roads and educational institutions grew up all over the country. To his external credit it should be said that it was Ashoka who, for the first time in the history of the world, established hospitals for both men and animals, not only in Asia but also in Europe and Africa.
To those hasty critics who decry Buddhism as the cause of the decline and downfall of India, Asoka's prosperous Buddhist reign is a cogent reply.
Ashoka Missioners
According to the Pali Chronicles, at the end of the Third Council which was held in the seventeenth year of Ashoka' coronation, under the presidency of Arahant Monggaliputta Tissa, it was decided to send competent Arahants to nine different places to propagate the Teachings of the Buddha.
The names of the missioners and the places are as follows: -
Missioners Place
Majjhantika Thera Kashmir and Gandhar
Mahadeva Thera Mahimsaka Mandala
Rakkhita Thera Vanavasi
Yonaka Dhammarakkhita Thera Aparantaka
Mahadhammarakkhita Thera Maharattha
Maharakkhita Thera Yonakaloka
Majjhima Thera Himavantapadesa
Sonaka and Uttara Theras Suvanabhumi
Mahinda, Itthiya, Uttiya, Sambala and Bhaddasala Theras Tambapannidipa
It is stated that each mission consisted of five Theras so that it would be possible to perform the Upasampada ceremony in remote districts.
1. Kashmir is situated in the northwest of India. Peshavar and Ravapindi in north Punjab embrace Gandhara. Majjhantika Thera arrived here and subjugated the Naga King Aravala by his psychic powers and preached the Asivisopama Sutta.
2. Mahimsaka Mandala is identified the modern Mysore in South India. According to some it is a country south of the Vindhya Mountains. The Devaduta Sutta was preached here.
3. Vanavasi is North Kanara situated in South India. Even today there is a city called Vanavasi in this country. The Anamatagga Sutta Sutta ws the subject of the sermon.
4. Aparanta (Western End) is supposed to be Western India. According to the Puranas one of the five countries that existed in ancient India was Aparanta. Its capital was port Supparaka, modern Sopara. North Gujerat, Katiyavar, Kach, Sindh are included in Aparanta. The discourse that was delivered here was the Aggikkandhopama Sutta.
5. Maharattha is modern Maharashtra, which embraces mid-West India. The Maha Narada-Kassapa Jataka was delivered here.
6. Yonakarattha is the kingdom of the Greeks. It must be the Greek kingdom that existed in West India. According to some it comprises Egypt, Syria and Greece. The Kalakarama Sutta was delivered here.
7. It is stated that the Arahants Kassapagotta, Alakadeva, Mahadeva and Dundubhissara accompanied the Arahant Majjhima to the Himalaya region and preached the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta.
8. Some identify Suvannabhumi with Burma. Some say it is Karna Suvarna situated in Bengal and some say it is Hiranyavaha district along the banks of the Sona River. The brahmajala Sutta was the subject of the discourses.
9. Tambapannidipa is Sri Lanka (Ceylon).
The Mission to Ceylon
King Asoka's son himself accompanied by four Bhikkhus, one Samanera, and a lay Upasaka arrived in Langka to convert the Sinhalas. It was on a festival day that they reached Ceylon. It was on a festival day that they reached Ceylon. They met the reigning king Devanampiyatissa, who had gone with a party to hunt deer on a hill called Missaka (modern Mihintale). The Arahant Mahinda arrested the attention of the king by addressing him simply as "Tissa". An interesting conversation then followed. After this the Arahant Mahinda preached the Cullahantthi-padopama Sutta to the king and his followers, hearing which they all sought refuge in the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha and embraced this new teaching.
The Venerable Mahinda's Ceylon mission was a great success he found in Langka a fertile soil to disseminate the sublime Teachings of the Buddha. With royal patronage Buddhism was firmly established in Ceylon.
As Princess Anula, who attained the first stage of sainthood on hearing the first discourse delivered in the capital of Anuradhapura, expressed her desire to join the Order, the Venerable Mahinda dispatched a messenger to India inviting his sister Sanghamitta Their to visit Langka in order to establish the Bhikkhuní Sasana. As invited, she arrived in Ceylon with a branch of the Mahabodhi Tree at Buddha Gaya, and accompanied by a large retinue of distinguished men, who contributed largely to the material, intellectual and spiritual development of Sri Lanka.
To the eternal credit of Sinhala Buddhists it should be said that it is they who protected the sublime Teachings of the Dharma in their pristine purity by committing them to writing on ola leaves for the first time in the history of the Buddhist world.
Chapter 19
The Mangala Sutta
Blessing
Thus have I heard: -
On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling at the monastery of Anathapindika in Jeta's Grove, near Savantthi. Now when the night was far spent, a certain deity, whose surpassing splendor illuminated the entire Jeta Grove, came to the presence of the Blessed One and, drawing near, respectfully saluted Him and stood on one side. Standing thus, he addressed the Blessed One in verse: -
1. "Many deities and men yearning after good have pondered on Blessings, Pray, tell me the Highest Blessing"
The Blessed One answered him thus: -
2. "Not to associate with fools, to associate with the wise, and to honor those who are worthy of honor - this is the Highest Blessing."
3. "To reside in a suitable locality, to have done meritorious actions in the past, and to set oneself in the right course - this is the Highest Blessing."
4. "Much learning, perfect handicraft, a highly trained discipline and pleasant speech - this is the Highest Blessing."
5. "To support of father and mother, the cherishing of wife and children and peaceful occupations - this is the Highest Blessing."
6. "Liberty, righteous conduct and helping of relatives and blameless actions - this is the Highest Blessing."
7. "To cease and abstain from evil, forbearance with respect to intoxicants and steadfastness in virtue - this is the Highest Blessing."
8. "Reverence, humanity, contentment, gratitude and opportune hearing of the Dhamma - this is the Highest Blessing."
9. "Patience, obedience, sight of the Samanas and religious discussion in due season - this is the Highest Blessing."
10. "Self-control, the hold life perception of the Noble Truths and the realization of Nibbána - this is the Highest Blessing."
11. "He whose mind does not flutter by contact with world contingencies. Sorrow less, Stainless and Secure - this is the Highest Blessing."
12. "To them, fulfilling matters such as these, everywhere invincible, in every moving happily - these are the Highest Blessing."
Chapter 20
The Parabhava Sutta
Downfall
Thus have I heard: -
On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling at the monastery of Anathapindika in the Jeta Grove near Savatthi.
Now when the night was far spent, a certain deity whose splendor illuminated the whole Jeta Grove, came to the presence of the Blessed One, and drawing near, respectfully saluted Him and stood on one side. Standing thus, he addressed the Blessed One in verse;
1. "Having come to interrogate the Blessed One, we ask thee, O Gotama, about the falling man. Pray, tell us the cause of one's downfall."
2. "Easily known is the progressive one, easily known is the declining one. A lover of the Dhamma is the progressive one, a hater of the Dhamma is the declining one.'
3. "This then we learn is the first cause of one's downfall. Pray, O Blessed One, tell us the second cause of one's downfall."
4. "The vicious are dear to him. In the virtuous he finds nothing pleasing. He favors the creeds of the vicious - this is the cause of one's downfall."
5. "This then we learn is the second cause of one's downfall. Pray, O blessed One, tell us the third cause of one's downfall.'
6. "The man who is drowsy, fond of society, not industrious, indolent, and who manifests anger - this is the cause of one's downfall."
7. "This then we learn is the third cause of one's downfall. Pray, O Blessed One, tell us the fourth cause of one's downfall."
8. "Whosoever, being rich, does not support his aged mother and father who have passed their youth - this is the cause of one's downfall."
9. "This then we learn is the fourth cause of one's downfall, Pray, O Blessed One, tell us the fifth cause of one's downfall."
10. "He who, by falsehood, deceives a Brahmana or an ascetic or any mendicant - this is the cause of one's downfall."
11. "This then we learn is the fifth cause of one's downfall. Pray, O Blessed One, tell us the sixth cause of one's downfall."
12. "The man who owns much property, who has gold and food, but alone enjoys his delicacies - this is the cause of one's downfall."
13. "This then we learn is the sixth cause of one's downfall. Pray O Blessed One, tell us the seventh cause of one's downfall."
14. "The man who takes pride in birth or wealth or clan, and despises his own kinsmen - this is the cause of one's downfall."
15. "This then we learn is the seventh cause of one's downfall. Pray, O Blessed One, tell us the eighth cause of one's downfall."
16. "The man who is debauch, a drunkard, a gambler and who squanders whatever he possesses - this is the cause of one's downfall."
17. "This then we learn is the eight cause of one's downfall. Pray, O Blessed One, tell us the ninth cause of one's downfall."
18. "Not contented with one's own wives, if one is seen amongst courtesans and the wives of others - this is the cause of one's downfall."
19. "This then we learn is the ninth cause of one's downfall. Pray, O Blessed One, tell us the tenth cause of one's downfall."
20. "The man who, past his youth, brings a very young wife and sleep not for jealousy of her this is the eleventh cause of one's downfall."
21. "This then we learn is the tenth cause of one's downfall. Pray, O Blessed One, tell us the eleventh cause of one's downfall."
22. "He who places in authority an intemperate spendthrift woman, or a man of similar nature - this is the cause of one's downfall."
23. "This then we learn is the eleventh cause of one's downfall. Pray, O Blessed One, tell us the twelfth cause of one's downfall."
24. "He who, of warrior birth, with vast ambition but slender means, aspires to sovereignty - this is the cause of one's downfall."
25. "Knowing well these causes of downfall in the world, the Noble Sage, endowed with insight, shares a happy realm."
Chapter 21
The Mettá Sutta
Loving-kindness
1. He who is skilled in his good, and who wishes to attain that state of Calm, should act thus: -
2. He should be able, upright, perfectly upright, obedient, gentle and humble. Contented easily supportable, with few duties, of light livelihood, with senses controlled, discreet, not impudent, not be greedily, attached to families.
3. He should not commit any slight wrong on account of which other wise men might censure him. May all beings be happy and secure, may their hearts be wholesome.
4. Whatever living beings there be - feeble or strong, long, stout or medium, short, small or large, seen or unseen, those dwelling far or near, those who are to be born - may all beings, without exception, be happy minded.
5. Let none deceive another nor despise any person whatever in any place. In anger or ill-will let him not wish harm to another.
6. Just as a mother would protect her only child at the risk of her own, even so, let him cultivate a boundless heart towards all beings.
7. Let his thought of boundless love pervade the whole world - above, below across without any hatred, without any enmity.
8. Whether he stands, walks, sits or lies down, as long as he is awake, he should develop this mindfulness. This, they say, is the Highest Conduct here.
9. Not falling into Error, virtuous and endowed with Insight, he discards attachment to sense-desires. Of a truth, he does not come again for conception in a womb.
Chapter 22
The Vyagghapajja Sutta
Thus have I heard: -
On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling amongst the Koliyans in their market town named Kakkarapatta. Then Dighajanu, a Koliyan son, approached the Blessed One, respectfully saluted Him and sat on one side. Thus seated, he addressed the Blessed One as follows: -
"We, Lord are laymen who enjoy worldly pleasures. We lead a life encumbered by wife and children. We use sandalwood of Kasi. We deck ourselves with garlands, perfume and unguents. We suffer the use of gold and silver. To such as us, Lord, let the Blessed One preach the Doctrine, teach those things that lead to the weal and happiness in this life and to the happiness of the other world.
Causes Of Worldly Progress
These four things, Vyagghapajja, conduce to the good and happiness of a clansman in this very life. What four?
"The achievement of persistent effort - Utthanasampada, the achievement pf wariness - Arakkhasampada, good friendship - Kalyanamittata and the balanced livelihood - Samajivikata."
"Herein, Vyagghapajja, by whatsoever activity a clansman earns his living, whether by the plough, by trading, by watching cattle, by archery, by ministering to kings or by any other kind of craft - at that he becomes skillful and is nit lazy. He is endowed with reasoning as to ways and means thereof. He is able to do and manage (his job).
"This is called the achievement of persistent effort."
"What is the achievement of wariness?"
"Herein, Vyagghapajja, in whatsoever village or market town a clansman dwells, he stands together, converses, engages in discussions with householders of householders' sons, whether young or highly cultured or old and highly cultured, full of faith - Saddha, full of virtue - Síla, full of charity - Caga, full of wisdom - Paññá. He acts in accordance with the faith of those full of faith, with the virtue of those full of virtue, with the charity of those full of charity, with the wisdom of those full of wisdom,
"This is called good company."
"What is balanced livelihood?"
"Herein, Vyagghapajja, a clansman knowing his income and expenses leads a steady life, being neither too extravagant nor too sordid, thinking that thus his income will stand in excess of his expenses, but his expenses in excess of his income.
"Just as the goldsmith, or an apprentice of his, knows, on holding up a balance, that by such so much it has dipped down, by so much it has tiled up; even so a clansman knowing his income and expenses, leads his steady life, being neither too extravagant nor too sordid, thinking that thus his income will stand in excess of his expenses, but not his expenses in excess of his income."
"If, Vyagghapajja, a clansman with little income were to lead a luxurious life, there would be those who say - 'Thus clansman enjoys his wealth like one who eats wood-apple. If, Vyagghapajja, a clansman, with large income were to lead a wretched life, there would be those who say: -
'This clansman will die like a starveling.'
"The wealth thus amassed, Vyagghapajja, has four sources of destruction: -
I. Debauchery - Ittidhutto,
II. Drunkenness - Suradhutto,
III. Indulgence in gambling - Akkhadhutto, and
IV. Friendship, companionship and intimacy with evil-doers.
"Just as in the case of a great tank with for inlets and outlets, if a man should close the inlets and open the outlets and there should be no adequate rainfall, decrease (of water) is to be expected in that tank and not an increase; even so there are four sources for the destruction of amassed wealth - debauchery, drunkenness, indulgence in gambling and friendship, companionship and intimacy with evil-doer.
There are four sources for the development of amassed wealth: -
I. Abstinence from debauchery,
II. Abstinence from drunkenness,
III. Non-indulgence in gambling, and
IV. Friendship, companionship and intimacy with the good.
"Just as in the case of a great tank with four inlets and four outlets, if a person were to open the inlets and close the outlets, and there should also be adequate rainfall, and increase of ware is certainly to be expected in that tank and not a decrease, even, so the four above-mentioned are the sources of development of amassed wealth."
"These four things are conducive to the good and happiness of a noble son in this life itself."
Causes Of Spiritual Progress
"These four things are conducive to the good and happiness of a noble son in the other world."
"Which four?"
I. Achievement of Faith-Saddhasampada
II. Achievement of Virtue-Silasampada
III. Achievement of Charity-Cagasampada
IV. Achievement of Wisdom-Pannasampada
"What is the achievement of faith?"
"Herein a clansman is possessed of faith, believes in he Enlightenment of the Tathágata: - Thus, indeed is that Blessed One, An Exalted One, Omniscient, Endowed with wisdom and conduct, Auspicious Knower of worlds, an Incomparable Charioteer for the training of individuals, Teacher of gods and men, Enlightened and Holy."
"This is called the achievement of virtue?"
"Herein a clansman abstains from killing, stealing, un-chastity, lying and intoxicants that cause infatuation and heedlessness."
"This is called the achievement of virtue."
"What is the achievement of charity?"
"Herein a clansman, dwells at home with heart free from the stain of avarice, devoted to charity, open-handed, delighting in generosity, fit to be asked (for alms), rejoicing in sharing alms."
"What is the achievement of wisdom?"
"Herein a clansman is wise, is endowed with wisdom that leads to one's development and with noble penetrative insight - Nibbedikaya that leads to the complete destruction of suffering."
"This is called the achievement of wisdom."
"These four things are conducive to the good and happiness of a clansman in the other world."
"Strenuous in spheres of work, heedful and ordering, he lives well, protecting what he has amassed."
"Endowed with faith and virtue, generous and free from avarice, he ever clears the path of happiness to the other world."
"Thus for the believing home-seekers, these eight things that lead to the happiness in both worlds - well-being in this and happiness in the other - have been declared by Him who owns a truthful name. In this way do the charity and merit of laymen grow."