Contents
· The Translator
· The Editor
· Introduction
· Part One: The Discourse on Right View (Sammaditthi Sutta)
· Part Two: The Commentary to the Discourse on Right View
· Notes
The Translator
Bhikkhu Ñanamoli was born in England in 1905 and graduated from Exeter
College, Oxford. In 1948 he came to Sri Lanka, where he was ordained the following
year at the Island Hermitage near Dodanduwa. During his 11 years in the Sangha
Ven. Ñanamoli translated into lucid English some of the most difficult
texts of Theravada Buddhism. In 1960, on one of his rare outings from the Hermitage,
he suddenly passed away due to heart failure.
The Editor
Bhikkhu Bodhi is a Buddhist monk of American nationality, born in New York
City in 1944. After completing a doctorate in philosophy at Claremont Graduate
School, he came to Sri Lanka in 1972, and was ordained the same year under the
eminent scholar-monk, Ven. Balangoda Ananda Maitreya. Since 1984 he has been
Editor for the Buddhist Publication Society, and its President since 1988.
* * *
Bhikkhus, just as the dawn is the forerunner and first indication of the rising
of the sun, so is right view the forerunner and first indication of wholesome
states.
For one of right view, bhikkhus, right intention springs up. For one of right
intention, right speech springs up. For one of right speech, right action springs
up. For one of right action, right livelihood springs up. For one of right livelihood,
right effort springs up. For one of right effort, right mindfulness springs
up. For one of right mindfulness, right concentration springs up. For one of
right concentration, right knowledge springs up. For one of right knowledge,
right deliverance springs up.
Anguttara Nikaya 10:121
Introduction
The Sammaditthi Sutta, the Discourse on Right View, is the ninth sutta of
the Majjhima Nikaya, the Collection of Middle Length Discourses. Its expositor
is the Venerable Sariputta Thera, the Buddha's chief disciple and the foremost
of the Master's bhikkhu disciples in the exercise of the faculty of wisdom.
The Buddha declared that next to himself, it was the Venerable Sariputta who
excelled in turning the incomparable Wheel of the Dhamma, in expounding in depth
and in detail the Four Noble Truths realized with the attainment of enlightenment.
In the Sammaditthi Sutta the great disciple bears ample testimony to the Buddha's
words of praise, bequeathing upon us a discourse that has served as a primer
of Buddhist doctrine for generations of monks in the monasteries of South and
Southeast Asia.
As its title suggests, the subject of the Sammaditthi Sutta is right view. The
analysis of right view undertaken in the sutta brings us to the very core of
the Dhamma, since right view constitutes the correct understanding of the central
teachings of the Buddha, the teachings which confer upon the Buddha's doctrine
its own unique and distinctive stamp. Though the practice of right mindfulness
has rightly been extolled as the crest jewel of the Buddha's teaching, it cannot
be stressed strongly enough that the practice of mindfulness, or any other approach
to meditation, only becomes an effective instrument of liberation to the extent
that it is founded upon and guided by right view. Hence, to confirm the importance
of right view, the Buddha places it at the very beginning of the Noble Eightfold
Path. Elsewhere in the Suttas the Buddha calls right view the forerunner of
the path (pubbangama), which gives direction and efficacy to the other seven
path factors.
Right view, as explained in the commentary to the Sammaditthi Sutta, has a variety
of aspects, but it might best be considered as twofold: conceptual right view,
which is the intellectual grasp of the principles enunciated in the Buddha's
teaching, and experiential right view, which is the wisdom that arises by direct
penetration of the teaching. Conceptual right view, also called the right view
in conformity with the truths (saccanulomika-sammaditthi), is a correct conceptual
understanding of the Dhamma arrived at by study of the Buddha's teachings and
deep examination of their meaning. Such understanding, though conceptual rather
than experiential, is not dry and sterile. When rooted in faith in the Triple
Gem and driven by a keen aspiration to realize the truth embedded in the formulated
principles of the Dhamma, it serves as a critical phase in the development of
wisdom (pañña), for it provides the germ out of which experiential
right view gradually evolves.
Experiential right view is the penetration of the truth of the teaching in one's
own immediate experience. Thus it is also called right view that penetrates
the truths (saccapativedha-sammaditthi). This type of right view is aroused
by the practice of insight meditation guided by a correct conceptual understanding
of the Dhamma. To arrive at direct penetration, one must begin with a correct
conceptual grasp of the teaching and transform that grasp from intellectual
comprehension to direct perception by cultivating the threefold training in
morality, concentration and wisdom. If conceptual right view van be compared
to a hand, a hand that grasps the truth by way of concepts, then experiential
right view can be compared to an eye -- the eye of wisdom that sees directly
into the true nature of existence ordinarily hidden from us by our greed, aversion
and delusion.
The Discourse on Right View is intended to elucidate the principles that are
to be comprehended by conceptual right view and penetrated by experiential right
view. The Venerable Sariputta expounds these principles under sixteen headings:
the wholesome and the unwholesome, the four nutriments of life, the Four Noble
Truths, the twelve factors of dependent arising, and the taints as the condition
for ignorance. It will be noted that from the second section to the end of the
sutta, all the expositions are framed in accordance with the same structure,
which reveals the principle of conditionality as the scaffolding for the entire
teaching. Each phenomenon to be comprehended by right view is expounded in terms
of its individual nature, its arising, its cessation, and the way leading to
its cessation. The grasp of this principle thus makes it clear that any entity
taken for examination is not an isolated occurrence with its being locked up
in itself, but part of a web of conditionally arisen processes that can be terminated
by understanding and eliminating the cause that gives it being.
The right view arrived at by penetrating any of the sixteen subjects expounded
in the sutta is discussed in terms of two aspects, both aspects of supramundane
penetration. The first is the initial penetration of the supramundane path that
transforms a person from a worldling (puthujjana) into a stream-enterer (sotapanna),
a noble disciple who has entered irreversibly upon the stream to liberation.
This aspect of right view is indicated by the words that open each section,
"(one) who has perfect confidence in the Dhamma and has arrived at this
true Dhamma." These qualities are attributes only of the stream-enterer
and those of higher attainment along the path. The description thus applies
to the trainee (sekha), the disciple who has entered the path but has not yet
reached its end. The words signify right view as a transformative vision which
has revealed the ultimate truths underlying our existence, but which must still
be developed further to complete the full transformation it is capable of effecting.
The second aspect of supramundane right view is indicated by the closing words
of each section, from "he entirely abandons the underlying tendency to
lust" to "he here and now makes an end of suffering." This description
is fully applicable only to the Arahant, the liberated one, and thus indicates
that the right view conceptually grasped by the wise worldling, and transformed
into direct perception with the attainment of stream-entry, reaches its consummation
with the arrival at the teaching's final goal, the attainment of complete emancipation
from suffering.
* * *
The translation of the Sammaditthi Sutta and its commentary presented here has
been adapted from manuscripts left behind by Bhikkhu Ñanamoli. The translation
of the sutta has been adapted from Ven. Ñanamoli's complete translation
of the Majjhima Nikaya. The version used has been taken from the edition of
the complete Majjhima Nikaya translation that I prepared for publication by
Wisdom Publications in the United States. This version, tentatively scheduled
for release in late 1992, employs extensive substitution of Ven. Ñanamoli's
own technical terminology with my own preferred renderings of Pali doctrinal
terms.
The commentary to the Sammaditthi Sutta is from the Papañcasudani, Acariya
Buddhaghosa's complete commentary (atthakatha) to the Majjhima Nikaya. The translation
of the commentary has also been adapted from a rendering by Ven. Ñanamoli,
contained in a notebook of his that was discovered only a few years ago at Island
Hermitage. The terminology used in the notebook version suggests that it was
one of Ven. Ñanamoli's earliest attempts at translation from the Pali;
it certainly preceded his translation of the Visuddhimagga, The Path of Purification,
first completed at the end of 1953. In adapting the translation, I have naturally
replaced the technical terminology used in the notebook version with that used
in the sutta. In places I also decided to translate directly from the Pali text
rather than adhere to Ven. Ñanamoli's rendering, which sometimes tended
to be literal to the point of awkwardness. A few passages from the commentary
that are concerned solely with linguistic clarification have been omitted from
the translation.
Passages in the commentarial section enclosed in square brackets are taken from
the subcommentary to the Sammaditthi Sutta, by Acariya Dhammapala. Passages
in parenthesis are additions either by Ven. Ñanamoli or by myself. The
paragraph numbering of the commentarial section follows that of the sutta. The
phrases of the sutta that are selected for comment have been set in boldface
[Not in this transcription -- JTB]. The backnotes are entirely my own.
Bhikkhu Bodhi
Part One:
The Discourse on Right View
(Sammaditthi Sutta)
1. Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was living at Savatthi
in Jeta's Grove, Anathapindika's Park. There the Venerable Sariputta addressed
the bhikkhus thus: "Friends, bhikkhus." -- "Friend," they
replied. The Venerable Sariputta said this:
2. "'One of right view, one of right view' is said, friends. In what way
is a noble disciple one of right view, whose view is straight, who has perfect
confidence in the Dhamma, and has arrived at this true Dhamma?"
"Indeed, friend, we would come from far away to learn from the Venerable
Sariputta the meaning of this statement. It would be good if the Venerable Sariputta
would explain the meaning of this statement. Having heard it from him, the bhikkhus
will remember it."
"Then, friends, listen and attend closely to what I shall say."
"Yes, friend," the bhikkhus replied. The Venerable Sariputta said
this:
(The Wholesome and the Unwholesome)
3. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands the unwholesome, the root
of the unwholesome, the wholesome, and the root of the wholesome, in that way
he is one of right view, whose view is straight, who has perfect confidence
in the Dhamma, and has arrived at this true Dhamma.
4. "And what, friends, is the unwholesome, what is the root of the unwholesome,
what is the wholesome, what is the root of the wholesome? Killing living beings
is unwholesome; taking what is not given is unwholesome; misconduct in sensual
pleasures is unwholesome; false speech is unwholesome; malicious speech is unwholesome;
harsh speech is unwholesome; gossip is unwholesome; covetousness is unwholesome;
ill will is unwholesome; wrong view is unwholesome. This is called the unwholesome.
5. "And what is the root of the unwholesome? Greed is a root of the unwholesome;
hate is a root of the unwholesome; delusion is a root of the unwholesome. This
is called the root of the unwholesome.
6. "And what is the wholesome? Abstention from killing living beings is
wholesome; abstention from taking what is not given is wholesome; abstention
from misconduct in sensual pleasures is wholesome; abstention from false speech
is wholesome; abstention from malicious speech is wholesome; abstention from
harsh speech is wholesome; abstention from gossip is wholesome; non-covetousness
is wholesome; non-ill will is wholesome; right view is wholesome. This is called
the wholesome.
7. "And what is the root of the wholesome? Non-greed is a root of the wholesome;
non-hate is a root of the wholesome; non-delusion is a root of the wholesome.
This is called the root of the wholesome.
8. "When a noble disciple has thus understood the unwholesome, the root
of the unwholesome, the wholesome, and the root of the wholesome, he entirely
abandons the underlying tendency to lust, he abolishes the underlying tendency
to aversion, he extirpates the underlying tendency to the view and conceit 'I
am,' and by abandoning ignorance and arousing true knowledge he here and now
makes an end of suffering. In that way too a noble disciple is one of right
view, whose view is straight, who has perfect confidence in the Dhamma and has
arrived at this true Dhamma."
(Nutriment)
9. Saying, "Good, friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in
the Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question: "But,
friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is one of right
view... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There might be,
friends.
10. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands nutriment, the origin
of nutriment, the cessation of nutriment, and the way leading to the cessation
of nutriment, in that way he is one of right view... and has arrived at this
true Dhamma.
11. "And what is nutriment, what is the origin of nutriment, what is the
cessation of nutriment, what is the way leading to the cessation of nutriment?
There are these four kinds of nutriment for the maintenance of beings that already
have come to be and for the support of those seeking a new existence. What four?
They are physical food as nutriment, gross or subtle; contact as the second;
mental volition as the third; and consciousness as the fourth. With the arising
of craving there is the arising of nutriment. With the cessation of craving
there is the cessation of nutriment. The way leading to the cessation of nutriment
is just this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view, right intention, right
speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and
right concentration.
12. "When a noble disciple has thus understood nutriment, the origin of
nutriment, the cessation of nutriment, and the way leading to the cessation
of nutriment, he entirely abandons the underlying tendency to greed, he abolishes
the underlying tendency to aversion, he extirpates the underlying tendency to
the view and conceit 'I am,' and by abandoning ignorance and arousing true knowledge
he here and now makes an end of suffering. In that way too a noble disciple
is one of right view, whose view is straight, who has perfect confidence in
the Dhamma and has arrived at this true Dhamma."
(The Four Noble Truths)
13. Saying, "Good, friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in
the Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question: "But,
friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is one of right
view... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There might be,
friends.
14. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands suffering, the origin
of suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the way leading to the cessation
of suffering, in that way he is one of right view... and has arrived at this
true Dhamma.
15. "And what is suffering, what is the origin of suffering, what is the
cessation of suffering, what is the way leading to the cessation of suffering?
Birth is suffering; aging is suffering; sickness is suffering; death is suffering;
sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief and despair are suffering; not to obtain what
one wants is suffering; in short, the five aggregates affected by clinging are
suffering. This is called suffering.
16. "And what is the origin of suffering? It is craving, which brings renewal
of being, is accompanied by delight and lust, and delights in this and that;
that is, craving for sensual pleasures, craving for being and craving for non-being.
This is called the origin of suffering.
17. "And what is the cessation of suffering? It is the remainderless fading
away and ceasing, the giving up, relinquishing, letting go and rejecting of
that same craving. This is called the cessation of suffering.
18. "And what is the way leading to the cessation of suffering? It is just
this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view... right concentration. This
is called the way leading to the cessation of suffering.
19. "When a noble disciple has thus understood suffering, the origin of
suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the way leading to the cessation
of suffering... he here and now makes an end of suffering. In that way too a
noble disciple is one of right view... and has arrived at this true Dhamma."
(Aging and Death)
20. Saying, "Good, friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in
the Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question: "But,
friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is one of right
view... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There might be,
friends.
21. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands aging and death, the origin
of aging and death, the cessation of aging and death, and the way leading to
the cessation of aging and death, in that way he is one of right view... and
has arrived at this true Dhamma.
22. "And what is aging and death, what is the origin of aging and death,
what is the cessation of aging and death, what is the way leading to the cessation
of aging and death? The aging of beings in the various orders of beings, their
old age, brokenness of teeth, grayness of hair, wrinkling of skin, decline of
life, weakness of faculties -- this is called aging. The passing of beings out
of the various orders of beings, their passing away, dissolution, disappearance,
dying, completion of time, dissolution of the aggregates, laying down of the
body -- this is called death. So this aging and this death are what is called
aging and death. With the arising of birth there is the arising of aging and
death. With the cessation of birth there is the cessation of aging and death.
The way leading to the cessation of aging and death is just this Noble Eightfold
Path; that is, right view... right concentration.
23. "When a noble disciple has thus understood aging and death, the origin
of aging and death, the cessation of aging and death, and the way leading to
the cessation of aging and death... he here and now makes an end of suffering.
In that way too a noble disciple is one of right view... and has arrived at
this true Dhamma."
(Birth)
24. Saying, "Good, friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in
the Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question: "But,
friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is one of right
view... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There might be,
friends.
25. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands birth, the origin of birth,
the cessation of birth, and the way leading to the cessation of birth, in that
way he is one of right view... and has arrived at this true Dhamma.
26. "And what is birth, what is the origin of birth, what is the cessation
of birth, what is the way leading to the cessation of birth? The birth of beings
into the various orders of beings, their coming to birth, precipitation [in
a womb], generation, manifestation of the aggregates, obtaining the bases for
contact -- this is called birth. With the arising of being there is the arising
of birth. With the cessation of being there is the cessation of birth. The way
leading to the cessation of birth is just this Noble Eightfold Path; that is,
right view... right concentration.
27. "When a noble disciple has thus understood birth, the origin of birth,
the cessation of birth, and the way leading to the cessation of birth... he
here and now makes an end of suffering. In that way too a noble disciple is
one of right view... and has arrived at this true Dhamma."
(Being)
28. Saying, "Good, friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in
the Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question: "But,
friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is one of right
view... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There might be,
friends.
29. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands being, the origin of being,
the cessation of being, and the way leading to the cessation of being, in that
way he is one of right view... and has arrived at this true Dhamma.
30. "And what is being, what is the origin of being, what is the cessation
of being, what is the way leading to the cessation of being? There are these
three kinds of being: sense-sphere being, fine-material being and immaterial
being. With the arising of clinging there is the arising of being. With the
cessation of clinging there is the cessation of being. The way leading to the
cessation of being is just this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view...
right concentration.
31. "When a noble disciple has thus understood being, the origin of being,
the cessation of being, and the way leading to the cessation of being... he
here and now makes an end of suffering. In that way too a noble disciple is
one of right view... and has arrived at this true Dhamma."
(Clinging)
32. Saying, "Good, friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in
the Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question: "But,
friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is one of right
view... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There might be,
friends.
33. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands clinging, the origin of
clinging, the cessation of clinging, and the way leading to the cessation of
clinging, in that way he is one of right view... and has arrived at this true
Dhamma.
34. "And what is clinging, what is the origin of clinging, what is the
cessation of clinging, what is the way leading to the cessation of clinging?
There are these four kinds of clinging: clinging to sensual pleasures, clinging
to views, clinging to rituals and observances, and clinging to a doctrine of
self. With the arising of craving there is the arising of clinging. With the
cessation of craving there is the cessation of clinging. The way leading to
the cessation of clinging is just this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right
view... right concentration.
35. "When a noble disciple has thus understood clinging, the origin of
clinging, the cessation of clinging, and the way leading to the cessation of
clinging... he here and now makes an end of suffering. In that way too a noble
disciple is one of right view... and has arrived at this true Dhamma."
(Craving)
36. Saying, "Good, friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in
the Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question: "But,
friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is one of right
view... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There might be,
friends.
37. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands craving, the origin of
craving, the cessation of craving, and the way leading to the cessation of craving,
in that way he is one of right view... and has arrived at this true Dhamma.
38. "And what is craving, what is the origin of craving, what is the cessation
of craving, what is the way leading to the cessation of craving? There are these
six classes of craving: craving for forms, craving for sounds, craving for odors,
craving for flavors, craving for tangibles, craving for mind-objects. With the
arising of feeling there is the arising of craving. With the cessation of feeling
there is the cessation of craving. The way leading to the cessation of craving
is just this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view... right concentration.
39. "When a noble disciple has thus understood craving, the origin of craving,
the cessation of craving, and the way leading to the cessation of craving...
he here and now makes an end of suffering. In that way too a noble disciple
is one of right view... and has arrived at this true Dhamma."
(Feeling)
40. Saying, "Good, friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in
the Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question: "But,
friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is one of right
view... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There might be,
friends.
41. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands feeling, the origin of
feeling, the cessation of feeling, and the way leading to the cessation of feeling,
in that way he is one of right view... and has arrived at this true Dhamma.
42. "And what is feeling, what is the origin of feeling, what is the cessation
of feeling, what is the way leading to the cessation of feeling? There are these
six classes of feeling: feeling born of eye-contact, feeling born of ear-contact,
feeling born of nose-contact, feeling born of tongue-contact, feeling born of
body-contact, feeling born of mind-contact. With the arising of contact there
is the arising of feeling. With the cessation of contact there is the cessation
of feeling. The way leading to the cessation of feeling is just this Noble Eightfold
Path; that is, right view... right concentration.
43. "When a noble disciple has thus understood feeling, the origin of feeling,
the cessation of feeling, and the way leading to the cessation of feeling...
he here and now makes an end of suffering. In that way too a noble disciple
is one of right view... and has arrived at this true Dhamma."
(Contact)
44. Saying, "Good, friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in
the Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question: "But,
friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is one of right
view... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There might be,
friends.
45. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands contact, the origin of
contact, the cessation of contact, and the way leading to the cessation of contact,
in that way he is one of right view... and has arrived at this true Dhamma.
46. "And what is contact, what is the origin of contact, what is the cessation
of contact, what is the way leading to the cessation of contact? There are these
six classes of contact: eye-contact, ear-contact, nose-contact, tongue-contact,
body-contact, mind-contact. With the arising of the sixfold base there is the
arising of contact. With the cessation of the sixfold base there is the cessation
of contact. The way leading to the cessation of contact is just this Noble Eightfold
Path; that is, right view... right concentration.
47. "When a noble disciple has thus understood contact, the origin of contact,
the cessation of contact, and the way leading to the cessation of contact...
he here and now makes an end of suffering. In that way too a noble disciple
is one of right view... and has arrived at this true Dhamma."
(The Sixfold Base)
48. Saying, "Good, friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in
the Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question: "But,
friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is one of right
view... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There might be,
friends.
49. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands the sixfold base, the
origin of the sixfold base, the cessation of the sixfold base, and the way leading
to the cessation of the sixfold base, he is one of right view... and has arrived
at this true Dhamma.
50. "And what is the sixfold base, what is the origin of the sixfold base,
what is the cessation of the sixfold base, what is the way leading to the cessation
of the sixfold base? There are these six bases: the eye-base, the ear-base,
the nose-base, the tongue-base, the body-base, the mind-base. With the arising
of mentality-materiality there is the arising of the sixfold base. With the
cessation of mentality-materiality there is the cessation of the sixfold base.
The way leading to the cessation of the sixfold base is just this Noble Eightfold
Path; that is, right view... right concentration.
51. "When a noble disciple has thus understood the sixfold base, the origin
of the sixfold base, the cessation of the sixfold base, and the way leading
to the cessation of the sixfold base... he here and now makes an end of suffering.
In that way too a noble disciple is one of right view... and has arrived at
this true Dhamma."
(Mentality-Materiality)
52. Saying, "Good, friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in
the Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question: "But,
friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is one of right
view... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There might be,
friends.
53. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands mentality-materiality,
the origin of mentality-materiality, the cessation of mentality-materiality,
and the way leading to the cessation of mentality-materiality, in that way he
is one of right view... and has arrived at this true Dhamma.
54. "And what is mentality-materiality, what is the origin of mentality-materiality,
what is the cessation of mentality-materiality, what is the way leading to the
cessation of mentality-materiality? Feeling, perception, volition, contact and
attention -- these are called mentality. The four great elements and the material
form derived from the four great elements -- these are called materiality. So
this mentality and this materiality are what is called mentality-materiality.
With the arising of consciousness there is the arising of mentality-materiality.
With the cessation of consciousness there is the cessation of mentality-materiality.
The way leading to the cessation of mentality-materiality is just this Noble
Eightfold Path; that is, right view... right concentration.
55. "When a noble disciple has thus understood mentality-materiality, the
origin of mentality-materiality, the cessation of mentality-materiality, and
the way leading to the cessation of mentality-materiality... he here and now
makes an end of suffering. In that way too a noble disciple is one of right
view... and has arrived at this true Dhamma."
(Consciousness)
56. Saying, "Good, friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in
the Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question: "But,
friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is one of right
view... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There might be,
friends.
57. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands consciousness, the origin
of consciousness, the cessation of consciousness, and the way leading to the
cessation of consciousness, in that way he is one of right view... and has arrived
at this true Dhamma.
58. "And what is consciousness, what is the origin of consciousness, what
is the cessation of consciousness, what is the way leading to the cessation
of consciousness? There are these six classes of consciousness: eye-consciousness,
ear-consciousness, nose-consciousness, tongue-consciousness, body-consciousness,
mind-consciousness. With the arising of formations there is the arising of consciousness.
With the cessation of formations there is the cessation of consciousness. The
way leading to the cessation of consciousness is just this Noble Eightfold Path;
that is, right view... right concentration.
59. "When a noble disciple has thus understood consciousness, the origin
of consciousness, the cessation of consciousness, and the way leading to the
cessation of consciousness... he here and now makes an end of suffering. In
that way too a noble disciple is one of right view... and has arrived at this
true Dhamma."
(Formations)
60. Saying, "Good friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in
the Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question: "But,
friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is one of right
view... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There might be,
friends.
61. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands formations, the origin
of formations, the cessation of formations, and the way leading to the cessation
of formations, in that way he is one of right view... and has arrived at this
true Dhamma.
62. "And what are formations, what is the origin of formations, what is
the cessation of formations, what is the way leading to the cessation of formations?
There are these three kinds of formations: the bodily formation, the verbal
formation, the mental formation. With the arising of ignorance there is the
arising of formations. With the cessation of ignorance there is the cessation
of formations. The way leading to the cessation of formations is just this Noble
Eightfold Path; that is, right view... right concentration.
63. "When a noble disciple has thus understood formations, the origin of
formations, the cessation of formations, and the way leading to the cessation
of formations... he here and now makes an end of suffering. In that way too
a noble disciple is one of right view... and has arrived at this true Dhamma."
(Ignorance)
64. Saying, "Good friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in
the Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question: "But,
friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is one of right
view... and has arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There might be,
friends.
65. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands ignorance, the origin
of ignorance, the cessation of ignorance, and the way leading to the cessation
of ignorance, in that way he is one of right view... and has arrived at this
true Dhamma.
66. "And what is ignorance, what is the origin of ignorance, what is the
cessation of ignorance, what is the way leading to the cessation of ignorance?
Not knowing about suffering, not knowing about the origin of suffering, not
knowing about the cessation of suffering, not knowing about the way leading
to the cessation of suffering -- this is called ignorance. With the arising
of the taints there is the arising of ignorance. With the cessation of the taints
there is the cessation of ignorance. The way leading to the cessation of ignorance
is just this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view... right concentration.
67. "When a noble disciple has thus understood ignorance, the origin of
ignorance, the cessation of ignorance, and the way leading to the cessation
of ignorance... he here and now makes an end of suffering. In that way too a
noble disciple is one of right view... and has arrived at this true Dhamma."
(Taints)
68. Saying, "Good, friend," the bhikkhus delighted and rejoiced in
the Venerable Sariputta's words. Then they asked him a further question: "But,
friend, might there be another way in which a noble disciple is one of right
view, whose view is straight, who has perfect confidence in the Dhamma and has
arrived at this true Dhamma?" -- "There might be, friends.
69. "When, friends, a noble disciple understands the taints, the origin
of the taints, the cessation of the taints, and the way leading to the cessation
of the taints, in that way he is one of right view, whose view is straight,
who has perfect confidence in the Dhamma and has arrived at this true Dhamma.
70. "And what are the taints, what is the origin of the taints, what is
the cessation of the taints, what is the way leading to the cessation of the
taints? There are three taints: the taint of sensual desire, the taint of being
and the taint of ignorance. With the arising of ignorance there is the arising
of the taints. With the cessation of ignorance there is the cessation of the
taints. The way leading to the cessation of the taints is just this Noble Eightfold
Path; that is, right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right
livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration.
71. "When a noble disciple has thus understood the taints, the origin of
the taints, the cessation of the taints, and the way leading to the cessation
of the taints, he entirely abandons the underlying tendency to lust, he abolishes
the underlying tendency to aversion, he extirpates the underlying tendency to
the view and conceit 'I am,' and by abandoning ignorance and arousing true knowledge
he here and now makes an end of suffering. In that way too a noble disciple
is one of right view, whose view is straight, who has perfect confidence in
the Dhamma and has arrived at this true Dhamma."
That is what the Venerable Sariputta said. The bhikkhus were satisfied and delighted
in the Venerable Sariputta's words.
Part Two:
The Commentary to the Discourse on Right View
1. Thus have I heard: the Sammaditthi Sutta.
2. Herein, all such questions spoken by the Elder as " 'One of right view,
one of right view' is said, friends. In what way is a noble disciple one of
right view...?" or "And what, friends, is the unwholesome...?"
-- these are questions showing a desire to expound. Herein, since those who
know, those who do not know, those outside the Dispensation, those within it,
those who speak by hearsay, etc., and those who speak by personal knowledge,
say "one of right view," therefore, taking it as an expression (common)
to the many, he touched upon it twice, saying "One of right view, one of
right view" is said, friends (sammaditthi sammaditthi ti avuso vuccati).
The intention here is this: "Others say 'one of right view,' and still
others say 'one of right view.' Since that is said, in what way, friends, is
a noble disciple one of right view in respect of meaning and characteristic?"
Herein, one of right view is one possessing a lucid and praiseworthy view (sobhanaya
pasatthaya ca ditthiya samannagato). But when this word "right view"
is used to signify a state (rather than a person endowed with that state), it
then means a lucid and praiseworthy view.[1]
This right view is twofold: mundane (lokiya) and supramundane (lokuttara). Herein,
the knowledge of kamma as one's own and knowledge which is in conformity with
the (Four Noble) Truths are mundane right view; or, in brief, (mundane right
view is) all understanding that is accompanied by the taints.[2] Understanding
connected with the noble paths and fruits is supramundane right view.[3] The
person possessing right view is of three kinds: the worldling (puthujjana),
the disciple in higher training (sekha), and the one beyond training (asekha).
Herein, the worldling is of two kinds: one outside the Dispensation and one
within the Dispensation. Herein, one outside the Dispensation who believes in
kamma is one of right view on account of the view of kamma as one's own, but
not on account of that which is in conformity with the truths, because he holds
to the view of self. One within the Dispensation is of right view on account
of both. The disciple in higher training is one of right view on account of
fixed right view,[4] the one beyond training on account of (the right view)
that is beyond training.[5]
But here "one of right view" is intended as one possessing supramundane
wholesome right view, which is fixed in destiny and emancipating. Hence he said:
whose view is straight, who has perfect confidence in the Dhamma, and has arrived
at this true Dhamma (ujugata'ssa ditthi dhamme aveccappasadena samannagato agato
imam saddhammam). Because of its going straight without deviating to either
extreme, or because of its going straight by removing all crookedness such as
bodily crookedness, etc., supramundane right view is "straight." One
possessing that view also possesses perfect confidence, unshakable confidence,
in the ninefold supramundane Dhamma.[6] And by becoming disentangled from all
the thickets of (wrong) views, by abandoning all the defilements, by departing
from the round of rebirths, by bringing the practice to its consummation, he
is said to have come by the noble path to this "true Dhamma" proclaimed
by the Enlightened One, that is, Nibbana, the plunge into the Deathless.
The Wholesome and the Unwholesome
3. Understands the unwholesome (akusalan ca pajanati): he understands the unwholesome
called the ten courses of unwholesome kamma (action), penetrating this by way
of function with the understanding that has Nibbana as its object as "This
is suffering." (Understands) the root of the unwholesome (akusalamulan
ca pajanati): And he understands the unwholesome root which has become the root
condition of that (unwholesome), penetrating this, in the same way, as "This
is the origin of suffering." The same method applies here also in regard
to "the wholesome" and "the root of the wholesome." And,
as it is here, so in all the following sections, the understanding of the subject
should be understood by way of function.
In that way (ettavata pi): by this much; by this understanding of the unwholesome,
etc. He is one of right view (sammaditthi hoti): he possesses supramundane right
view of the kind aforesaid. Whose view is straight... and has arrived at this
true Dhamma: At this point the summary version of the teaching has been expounded.
And this (part of) the teaching itself was brief; but for those bhikkhus it
should be understood that the penetration (of the meaning) through right attention
occurred in detail.
But in the second section (Section 4) it should be understood that the teaching
too, as well as the penetration through attention, is stated in detail.
Herein, the bhikkhus [at the council at the Great Monastery held to rehearse
the Pitakas] said: "In the brief exposition the two lower paths are discussed,
in the detailed exposition the two higher paths," taking into account the
passage at the end of the sections setting forth the detailed exposition that
begins "he entirely abandons the underlying tendency to lust." But
the Elder (presiding over the council) said: "In the brief exposition the
four paths are expounded as a group, and also in the detailed exposition."[7]
This query into the brief and detailed expositions which has been cleared up
here should be understood in all the following sections in the way stated here.
From here on we shall only comment on terms that are new or obscure.
The Unwholesome Courses of Action
4. Herein, firstly, in the detailed exposition of the first section: as regards
the passage beginning killing living beings is unwholesome (panatipato kho avuso
akusalam), "unwholesome" should be understood by way of the occurrence
of unwholesomeness, or as what is opposed to the wholesome, which is to be dealt
with below (Section 6). As to characteristic, it is blameworthy and has painful
result, or it is defiled. This, in the first place, is the comment upon the
general terms here.
But as regards the particular terms, the phrase killing living beings means
the slaughter of a living being, the destruction of a living being. And here
a living being (pana) is, according to ordinary usage, a being (satta); in the
ultimate sense it is the life faculty. "Killing living beings" is
the volition to kill on the part of one who is aware, in respect of a living
being, that it is a living being, and which (volition), manifesting itself through
one or the other of the doors of body and speech, initiates activity resulting
in the cutting off of the life faculty.
In relation to beings such as animals, etc., which lack moral qualities (guna),
it is less blameworthy in respect of small living beings and more blameworthy
in respect of beings with large bodies. Why? Because of the magnitude of the
effort involved. And when the effort involved is equal, because of the magnitude
of the object (the being killed). In relation to beings such as humans, etc.,
who possess moral qualities, it is less blameworthy in respect of beings with
few good qualities and more blameworthy in respect of beings with great qualities.
When the size of the body and moral qualities are equal, however, it is less
blameworthy when the defilements and activity are mild, and more blameworthy
when they are strong: so it should be understood.
There are five constituents for this (act of killing a living being): a living
being, awareness that it is a living being, the mind to kill, activity, and
the death (of the being) thereby.
There are six means: one's own person, command, a missile, a fixed contrivance,
a magical spell, supernormal power.
To explore this matter in detail, however, would involve too much diffuseness.
Therefore we shall not explore it in detail, or any other subject similar in
kind. Those who wish to go into the matter may do so by looking it up in the
Samantapasadika, the Vinaya Commentary.[8]
Taking what is not given (adinnadana): the carrying off of others' goods, stealing,
robbery, is what is meant. Herein, "what is not given" is another's
possession, which the other may use as he likes without incurring penalty or
blame. "Taking what is not given" is the volition to steal on the
part of one who is aware, in respect of another's possession, that it is another's
possession, and which (volition) initiates activity resulting in the taking
of that thing.
That (taking of what is not given) is less blameworthy when the other's property
is of low value, and more blameworthy when it is of high value. Why? Because
of the high value of the object (stolen). When the value of the objects is equal,
the act is more blameworthy when the object belongs to one of outstanding qualities,
and less blameworthy when the object belongs to one who, in comparison, is inferior
with respect to moral qualities.
There are five constituents of this act: another's possession, awareness that
it is another's possession, the mind to steal, the activity, and the carrying
off (of the object) thereby.
There are six means: one's own person, etc. (as for killing).
And these (acts of stealing) may be classed, according to the way in which they
occur, by way of the following: taking by theft, by force, by concealment, by
stratagem, by fraud. This here is in brief; the details, however, are given
in the Samantapasadika.[9]
Misconduct in sensual pleasures (kamesu micchacara): here, "in sensual
pleasures" (kamesu) means in regard to sexual intercourse. "Misconduct"
is entirely reprehensible vile conduct. As to characteristic, sexual misconduct
is the volition to transgress bounds occurring through the body door by way
of unrighteous intent.
Herein, out of bounds for men, firstly, are the twenty kinds of women, that
is, the ten beginning with those protected by the mother, namely, "protected
by the mother, protected by the father, protected by the mother and father,
protected by the brother, protected by the sister, protected by relatives, protected
by the clan, protected by the law, under protection, entailing a penalty";
and the ten beginning with those purchased with money, namely, "one purchased
with money, one who lives (with a man) by her own desire, one who lives (with
a man) on account of wealth, one who lives (with a man) on account of cloth,
one who is given (in marriage with the ceremony of) dipping the hand in water,
one who has been (taken to wife and) relieved of her burden-carrying head-pad,
one who is a slave and a wife, one who is a servant and a wife, one who is carried
off in a raid, one engaged at so much a time."[10]
Then, as concerns women, for the twelve kinds of women consisting of the two,
namely, under protection and entailing a penalty, and the ten beginning with
those purchased with money, other men are out of bounds.
This sexual misconduct is less blameworthy when (the person) out of bounds is
without good qualities such as virtue, etc., and more blameworthy when (the
person) possesses good qualities such as virtue, etc. There are four constituents
of this act: an object which is out of bounds, the mind to engage in that, the
effort to engage, and consent to the union of sexual organs.[11] The means is
single: one's own person.
False speech (musavada): "false" (musa) is the verbal effort or bodily
effort for destroying welfare (made) by one bent on deceiving. "False speech"
is the volition initiating the verbal effort or bodily effort of deceiving another
on the part of one intent on deceiving. According to another method, "false"
means an unreal, untrue case, "speech" the communication of that as
being real, true. As to characteristic, "false speech" is the volition
of one desiring to communicate to another an untrue case as being true, which
(volition) initiates such an act of communication.
This is less blameworthy when the welfare destroyed is slight, and more blameworthy
when the welfare destroyed is great. Further, when it occurs on the part of
householders who, not wishing to give away some belonging of theirs, say "I
do not have it," it is less blameworthy; when one who is a witness speaks
(falsely) for the purpose of destroying another's welfare, it is more blameworthy.
In the case of those gone forth, when it occurs by their saying as a joke, after
they have obtained just a little oil or ghee, in the manner of the Puranas,
"Today the oil is flowing in the village just like a river," then
it is less blameworthy; but for those who speak (as a witness) saying that they
have seen what they have not seen it is more blameworthy.
There are four constituents of this act: an untrue case, the mind to deceive,
the appropriate effort, the communicating of that meaning to another. The means
is single: one's own person only. That is to be regarded as the performing of
the action of deceiving another by means of the body or by means of something
attached to the body or by means of speech. If, through that action, the other
understands that meaning, one is bound by the kamma of false speech at the very
moment of the volition initiating the action.
Malicious speech, etc.: The kind of speech that creates in the heart of the
person to whom it is spoken affection for oneself and voidness (of affection)
for another is malicious speech (pisuna vaca). The kind of speech by which one
makes both oneself and another harsh, the kind of speech which is also itself
harsh, being pleasant neither to the ear nor to the heart -- that is harsh speech
(pharusa vaca). That by which one gossips idly, without meaning, is gossip (samphappalapa).
Also, the volition that is the root cause of these gains the name "malicious
speech," etc. And that only is intended here.
Therein, malicious speech is the volition of one with a defiled mind, which
(volition) initiates an effort by body or by speech either to cause division
among others or to endear oneself (to another). It is less blameworthy when
the person divided has few good qualities, and more blameworthy when such a
one has great qualities. Its constituents are four: another person to be divided,
the intention to divide, (thinking) "Thus these will be separated and split"
or the desire to endear oneself, (thinking) "Thus I shall become loved
and intimate," the appropriate effort, the communicating of that meaning
to that person.
Harsh speech is the entirely harsh volition initiating an effort by body or
by speech to wound another's vital feelings. This is an example given for the
purpose of making it clear: A village boy, it is said, went to the forest without
heeding his mother's words. Unable to make him turn back, she scolded him angrily,
saying: "May a wild buffalo chase you!" Then a buffalo appeared before
him right there in the forest. The boy made an asseveration of truth, saying:
"Let it not be as my mother said but as she thought!" The buffalo
stood as though tied there. Thus, although the means (employed) was that of
wounding the vital feelings, because of the gentleness of her mind it was not
harsh speech. For sometimes parents even say to their children, "May robbers
chop you to pieces!" yet they do not even wish a lotus leaf to fall upon
them. And teachers and preceptors sometimes say to their pupils, "What
is the use of these shameless and heedless brats? Drive them out!" yet
they wish for their success in learning and attainment.
Just as, through gentleness of mind, speech is not harsh, so through gentleness
of speech, speech does not become unharsh; for the words "Let him sleep
in peace" spoken by one wishing to kill are not unharsh speech. But harsh
speech is such on account of harshness of mind only. It is less blameworthy
when the person to whom it is spoken has few good qualities, and more blameworthy
when such a one has great qualities. Its constituents are three: another to
be abused, an angry mind, the abusing.
Gossip is the unwholesome volition initiating an effort by body or by speech
to communicate what is purposeless. It is less blameworthy when indulged in
mildly, and more blameworthy when indulged in strongly. Its constituents are
two: the being intent on purposeless stories such as the Bharata war or the
abduction of Sita, etc., and the telling of such stories.[12]
Covetousness (abhijjha): It covets, thus it is covetousness; "having become
directed towards others' goods, it occurs through inclination towards them"
is the meaning. It has the characteristic of coveting others' goods thus: "Oh,
that this were mine!" It is less blameworthy and more blameworthy as in
the case of taking what is not given. Its constituents are two: another's goods,
and the inclination for them to be one's own. For even though greed has arisen
based on another's goods, it is not classed as a (completed) course of kamma
so long as one does not incline to them as one's own (with the thought), "Oh,
that this were mine!"
Ill will (byapada): It injures welfare and happiness, thus it is ill will (hitasukham
byapadayati ti byapado). Its characteristic is the mental defect (of wishing
for) the destruction of others. It is less blameworthy and more blameworthy
as in the case of harsh speech. Its constituents are two: another being, and
the wish for that being's destruction. For even though anger has arisen based
on another being, there is no breach of a course of kamma so long as one does
not wish, "Oh, that this being might be cut off and destroyed!"
Wrong view (micchaditthi): It sees wrongly due to the absence of a correct grasp
of things, thus it is wrong view. Its characteristic is the mistaken view that
"there is no (result from) giving," etc. It is less blameworthy and
more blameworthy as in the case of gossip. Moreover, it is less blameworthy
when not fixed in destiny, and more blameworthy when fixed.[13] Its constituents
are two: a mistaken manner of grasping the basis (for the view), and the appearance
of that (basis) in accordance with the manner in which it has been grasped.
Now the exposition of these ten courses of unwholesome kamma should be understood
in five ways: as to mental state (dhammato), as to category (kotthasato), as
to object (arammanato), as to feeling (vedanato), and as to root (mulato).
Herein, as to mental state: The first seven among these are volitional states
only. The three beginning with covetousness are associated with volition.[14]
As to category: The eight consisting of the first seven and wrong view are courses
of kamma only, not roots. Covetousness and ill will are courses of kamma and
also roots; for covetousness, having arrived at the (state of) a root, is the
unwholesome root greed, and ill will is the unwholesome root hate.
As to object: Killing living beings, because it has the life faculty as object,
has a formation as object. Taking what is not given has beings as object or
formations as object. Misconduct in sensual pleasures has formations as object
by way of tangible object; but some say it also has beings as object. False
speech has beings or formations as object; likewise malicious speech. Harsh
speech has only beings as object. Gossip has either beings or formations as
object by way of the seen, heard, sensed and cognized; likewise covetousness.
Ill will has only beings as object. Wrong view has formations as object by way
of the states belonging to the three planes (of being).
As to feeling: Killing living beings has painful feeling; for although kings,
seeing a robber, say laughingly, "Go and execute him," their volition
consummating the action is associated only with pain. Taking what is not given
has three feelings. Misconduct (in sensual pleasures) has two feelings, pleasant
and neutral, but in the mind which consummates the action there is no neutral
feeling. False speech has three feelings; likewise malicious speech. Harsh speech
has painful feeling only. Gossip has three feelings. Covetousness has two feelings,
pleasant and neutral; likewise wrong view. Ill will has painful feeling only.
As to root: Killing living beings has two roots, by way of hate and delusion;
taking what is not given, by way of hate and delusion or by way of greed and
delusion; misconduct, by way of greed and delusion; false speech, by way of
hate and delusion or by way of greed and delusion; likewise for malicious speech
and gossip; harsh speech, by way of hate and delusion. Covetousness has one
root, by way of delusion; likewise ill will. Wrong view has two roots, by way
of greed and delusion.
The Unwholesome Roots
5. Greed is a root of the unwholesome, etc.: It is greedy, thus it is greed
(lubbhati ti lobho); it offends against (it hates), thus it is hate (dussati
ti doso); it deludes, thus it is delusion (muyhati ti moho). Among these, greed
is itself unwholesome in the sense that it is blameworthy and has painful results;
and it is a root of these unwholesome (deeds) beginning with killing living
beings, for some in the sense that it is an associated originative cause, for
some in the sense that it is a decisive support condition. Thus it is an unwholesome
root. This too is said: "One who is lustful, friends, overwhelmed and with
mind obsessed by lust, kills a living being" (A.3:71/i,216; text slightly
different). The same method applies to the state of being unwholesome roots
in the cases of hate and delusion.
The Wholesome Courses of Action
6. Abstention from killing living beings is wholesome (panatipata veramani),
etc.: Here "killing living beings," etc. have the same meaning as
aforesaid. It crushes the hostile, thus it is abstention (veram manati ti veramani);
the meaning is that it abandons the hostile. Or: with that as the instrument
one abstains (viramati), the syllable ve being substituted for the syllable
vi. This here is, in the first place, the commentary on the phrasing.
But as to the meaning, abstention is refraining (virati) associated with wholesome
consciousness. What is stated thus: "For one refraining from killing living
beings, that which is on that occasion the leaving off, the refraining"
(Vibh. 285), that is the refraining associated with wholesome consciousness.
As to kind, it is threefold: refraining in the presence of opportunity, refraining
because of an undertaking, and refraining because of eradication (of defilements).
Herein, refraining in the presence of an opportunity (sampattavirati) is to
be understood as the refraining which occurs in those who have not undertaken
any training rule but who do not transgress when an opportunity for doing so
presents itself because they reflect upon their birth, age, learning, etc.,
like the lay follower Cakkana in the island of Sri Lanka.
When he was a boy, it is said, his mother developed an illness, and the doctor
said, "Fresh hare's flesh is needed." Then Cakkana's brother sent
him, saying, "Go, dear, and hunt in the field." He went there. On
that occasion a hare had come to eat the young corn. On seeing him it bolted
swiftly, but it got entangled in a creeper and squealed "kiri, kiri."
Guided by the sound, Cakkana went and caught it, thinking, "I will make
medicine for my mother." Then he thought again, "This is not proper
for me, that I should deprive another of life for the sake of my mother's life."
So he released it, saying "Go and enjoy the grass and the water with the
other hares in the forest." When his brother asked him, "Did you get
a hare, dear?" he told him what had happened. His brother scolded him.
He went to his mother and determined upon an asseveration of truth: "Since
I was born I am not aware that I have ever intentionally deprived a living being
of life." Straightaway his mother became well.
Refraining because of an undertaking (samadanavirati) is to be understood as
the refraining which occurs in those who do not transgress in a particular case
because they have undertaken training rules, giving up even their own lives
in the undertaking of the training rules and in what is superior to that, like
the lay follower who dwelt at Uttaravaddhamana Mountain.
It is said that after undertaking the training rules from the Elder Pingala
Buddharakkhita who lived in the Ambariya Monastery, he was plowing a field.
Then his ox got lost. Searching for it, he climbed up Uttaravaddhamana Mountain.
There a large serpent seized him. He thought, "Let me cut off his head
with this sharp axe." Then he thought again, "This is not proper for
me, that I should break a training rule that I have undertaken in the presence
of my honored teacher." Thinking up to the third time, "I will give
up my life but not the training rule," he threw the sharp hand axe that
was slung on his shoulder into the forest. Straightaway the creature released
him and went away.
Refraining because of eradication (of defilements) (samucchedavirati) is to
be understood as the refraining associated with the noble path. After the arising
of this even the thought, "I will kill a living being," does not occur
to the noble persons.
This refraining is called "wholesome" (kusala) because of the occurrence
of wholesomeness (kosalla); or because of shedding the vile (kucchitassa salanato).
Also, evil conduct is commonly called "weeds" (kusa) and it mows this
down (lunati), thus it is called "wholesome."
As in the case of the unwholesome, so for these courses of wholesome kamma the
exposition should be understood in five ways: as to mental state, as to category,
as to object, as to feeling, and as to root.
Herein, as to mental state: The first seven among these can be both volitions
and abstinences; the last three are associated with volition only.
As to category: The first seven are courses of kamma only, not roots. The last
three are courses of kamma and also roots. For non-covetousness, having arrived
at the (state of) a root, is the wholesome root non-greed; non-ill will is the
wholesome root non-hate; and right view is the wholesome root non-delusion.
As to object: The objects of these are the same as the objects of killing living
beings, etc. For abstention is spoken of in relation to something which can
be transgressed. But just as the noble path, which has Nibbana as object, abandons
the defilements, so too should these courses of kamma, which have the life faculty,
etc., as object, be understood to abandon the kinds of evil conduct beginning
with killing living beings.
As to feeling: All have pleasant feeling or neutral feeling. For there is no
painful feeling which arrives at the wholesome.
As to root: The first seven courses of kamma have three roots by way of non-greed,
non-hate, and non-delusion in one who abstains by means of consciousness associated
with knowledge. They have two roots in one who abstains by means of consciousness
dissociated from knowledge.[15] Non-covetousness has two roots in one who abstains
by means of consciousness associated with knowledge, one root (in one who abstains)
by means of consciousness dissociated from knowledge. Non-greed, however, is
not by itself its own root. The same method applies in the case of non-ill will.
Right view always has two roots, by way of non-greed and non-hate.[16]
The Wholesome Roots
7. Non-greed is a root of the wholesome (alobho kusalamulam), etc.: Non-greed
is not greed; this is a term for the state that is opposed to greed. The same
method applies in the case of non-hate and non-delusion. Among these, non-greed
is itself wholesome; and it is a root of these wholesome (courses of kamma)
beginning with abstention from killing living beings, for some in the sense
that it is an associated originative cause and for some in the sense that it
is a decisive support condition. Thus it is a wholesome root. The same method
applies to the state of being wholesome roots in the cases of non-hate and non-delusion.
Conclusion on the Unwholesome and the Wholesome
8. Now, summing up the meaning of all that has been set forth in brief and in
detail, he states the concluding section beginning with the words when a noble
disciple. Herein, has thus understood the wholesome (evam akusalam pajanati)
means: has thus understood the unwholesome by way of the ten courses of unwholesome
kamma as described. The same method applies in the case of the root of the unwholesome,
etc.
Up to this point, by a single method, emancipation as far as Arahantship has
been expounded for one who has the Four Noble Truths as his meditation subject.
How? Here, the ten courses of unwholesome kamma with the exception of covetousness,
and the (ten) courses of wholesome kamma, are the truth of suffering. These
two states -- covetousness and the greed which is a root of the unwholesome
-- are, literally speaking, the truth of the origin. Speaking figuratively,
however, all the courses of kamma are the truth of suffering, and all the wholesome
and unwholesome roots are the truth of the origin.[17] The non-occurrence of
both is the truth of cessation. The noble path fully understanding suffering,
abandoning its origin, and understanding its cessation is the truth of the path.
Thus two truths are stated in their own nature and two are to be understood
by way of the guideline of conversion.[18]
He entirely abandons the underlying tendency to lust (so sabbaso raganusayam
pahaya): Understanding thus the unwholesome, etc., he abandons in all ways the
underlying tendency to lust. He abolishes the underlying tendency to aversion
(patighanusayam pativinodetva): and he removes in all ways too the underlying
tendency to aversion, is what is meant. Up to this point the path of non-return
is stated.[19] He extirpates the underlying tendency to the view and conceit
"I am" (asmi ti ditthimananusayam samuhanitva): he extricates the
underlying tendency to the view and conceit which occurs in the mode of grasping
the five aggregates as a group (with the notion) "I am," due to failure
to distinguish any state among them.
Therein, by the phrase the underlying tendency to the view and conceit "I
am" (ditthimananusayam) what is meant is the underlying tendency to conceit
which is similar to a view (ditthisadisam mananusayam). For this underlying
tendency to conceit is similar to a view because it occurs (with the notion)
"I am"; therefore it is stated thus. And one who wishes to understand
this conceit "I am" in detail should look up the Khemaka Sutta in
the Khandhiyavagga (S.22:89/iii,126ff.).
By abandoning ignorance (avijjam pahaya): having abandoned ignorance, the root
of the round (of existence). And arousing true knowledge (vijjam uppadetva):
having aroused the true knowledge of the path of Arahantship which completely
extricates that ignorance. At this point the path of Arahantship is stated.[20]
He here and now makes an end of suffering (ditth'eva dhamme dukkhass'antakaro
hoti): in this very existence he becomes one who cuts off the suffering of the
round.
In that way too (ettavatapi kho avuso): he marks off (this first part of) the
teaching; by way of the attention and penetration stated in this exposition
of the courses of kamma, is what is meant. The rest is as aforesaid. Thus he
concludes the exposition by means of the path of non-return and the path of
Arahantship.
THE FOUR NUTRIMENTS
General
9. Saying, "Good, friend,"... (etc.)..." and has arrived at this
true Dhamma": Thus, having heard the Venerable Sariputta's exposition of
the four truths under the heading of the wholesome and the unwholesome, the
bhikkhus delighted in his words with the statement, "Good, friend,"
and rejoiced with the mind that aroused that statement; what is meant is that
they agreed by word and approved by mind. Now, because the Elder was competent
to give an exposition on the four truths in diverse ways -- as (the Blessed
One) said: "Bhikkhus, Sariputta is able to propound, to teach, the Four
Noble Truths in detail" (M.141/iii, 248); or because he had said "in
that way too," being desirous of giving a further exposition, the bhikkhus,
being desirous of hearing the teaching of the four truths by another method,
asked him a further question. By asking "But, friend, might there be another
way? Would there be another case?" they asked another question additional
to that question asked and answered (already) by the Venerable Sariputta himself.
Or what is meant is that they asked a question subsequent to the previous one.
Then, answering them, the Elder said, "There might be, friends," and
so on.
10. Herein, this is the elucidation of the terms that are not clear. Nutriment
(ahara) is a condition (paccaya). For a condition nourishes its own fruit, therefore
it is called nutriment.[21]
11. Of beings that already have come to be (bhutanam va sattanam), etc.: Here
come to be (bhuta) means come to birth, reborn; seeking a new existence (sambhavesinam)
means those who seek, search for, existence, birth, production. Therein, among
the four kinds of generation,[22] beings born from eggs and from the womb are
said to be "seeking a new existence" as long as they have not broken
out of the eggshell or the placenta. When they have broken out of the eggshell
or the placenta and emerged outside, they are said to have "come to be."
The moisture-born and the spontaneously born are said to be "seeking a
new existence" at the first moment of consciousness; from the second moment
of consciousness onwards they are said to have "come to be."
Or alternatively, "come to be" is born, reproduced; this is a term
for those who have destroyed the cankers (Arahants), who are reckoned thus:
"They have come to be only, but they will not come to be again." "Seeking
a new existence" means they seek a new existence; this is a term for worldlings
and disciples in higher training who seek a new existence in the future too,
because they have not abandoned the fetter of being. Thus by these two terms
he includes all beings in all ways.
For the maintenance (thitiya); for the purpose of maintaining. For the support
(anuggahaya): for the purpose of supporting, for the purpose of helping. This
is merely a difference of words, but the meaning of the two terms is one only.
Or alternatively, "for the maintenance" is for the non-interruption
of this or that being by means of the serial connection of arisen states. "For
the support" is for the arising of unarisen (states). And both these expressions
should be regarded as applicable in both cases thus: "For the maintenance
and support of those that have come to be, and for the maintenance and support
of those seeking a new existence."
The Four Kinds of Nutriment
Physical food as nutriment (lit. "food made into a ball") (kabalinkaro
aharo) is nutriment that can be swallowed after making it into a ball; this
is a term for the nutritive essence which has as its basis boiled rice, junket,
etc.[23] Gross or subtle (olariko va sukhumo va): it is gross because of the
grossness of the basis, and subtle because of the subtlety of the basis. But
because physical nutriment is included in subtle materiality, by way of its
individual essence it is subtle only.[24] And also that grossness and subtlety
should be understood relatively in respect of the basis.
The nutriment of peacocks is subtle compared with the nutriment of crocodiles.
Crocodiles, they say, swallow stones, and these dissolve on reaching their stomachs.
Peacocks eat such animals as snakes, scorpions, etc. But the nutriment of hyenas
is subtle compared with the nutriment of peacocks. These, they say, eat horns
and bones thrown away three years before, and these become soft as yams as soon
as they are moistened with their saliva. Also, the nutriment of elephants is
subtle compared with the nutriment of hyenas. For these eat the branches of
various trees, etc. The nutriment of the gayal buffalo, the antelope, the deer,
etc., is subtler than the nutriment of elephants. These, they say, eat the sapless
leaves of various kinds of trees, etc. The nutriment of cows is subtler than
their nutriment; they eat fresh and dried grass. The nutriment of hares is subtler
than their nutriment; that of birds is subtler than that of hares; that of barbarians
is subtler than that of birds; that of village headmen is subtler than that
of barbarians; that of kings and kings' ministers is subtler than village headmens';
that of a Wheel-turning Monarch is subtler than their nutriment. The earth deities'
nutriment is subtler than that of a Wheel-turning Monarch. The nutriment of
the deities of the Four Great Kings is subtler than that of the earth deities.
Thus nutriment should be elaborated up to that of the deities who wield power
over others' creations.[25] But saying, "Their nutriment is subtle,"
the end is reached.
And here, in a basis that is gross, the nutritive essence is limited and weak;
in one that is subtle, it is strong. Thus one who has drunk even a full bowl
of gruel is soon hungry again and desirous of eating anything; but after drinking
even a small amount of ghee, he will not want to eat for the whole day. Therein,
it is the basis that dispels fatigue, but it is unable to preserve; but the
nutritive essence preserves, though it cannot dispel fatigue. But when the two
are combined they both dispel fatigue and preserve.
Contact as the second (phasso dutiyo): The sixfold contact beginning with eye-contact
should be understood as the second of these four kinds of nutriment. And this
is the method of the teaching itself; therefore it should not be inquired into
here, saying "For this reason it is the second, or the third." Mental
volition (manosancetana): volition (cetana) itself is stated. Consciousness
(viññanam): any kind of consciousness whatever.
It may be asked here: "If the meaning of condition is the meaning of nutriment,
then, when other conditions also exist for beings, why are only these four stated?"
It should be said in reply: "It is because they are the special conditions
for personal continuity." For physical nutriment is the special condition
for the material body of beings that eat physical nutriment; as regards the
group of mental constituents, contact is (the special condition) for feeling,
mental volition for consciousness, and consciousness for mentality-materiality.
As it is said: "Just as, bhikkhus, this body has nutriment for its maintenance,
is maintained in dependence on nutriment, and without nutriment is not maintained"
(S.46:2/v,64); and likewise: "With contact as condition, feeling;... with
formations as condition, consciousness;... with consciousness as condition,
mentality-materiality" (S.12:1/ii,1, etc.).
What is this nutriment, and what does it nourish? Physical nutriment nourishes
the materiality with nutritive essence as eighth;[26] contact as nutriment nourishes
the three feelings; mental volition as nutriment nourishes the three kinds of
being; consciousness as nutriment nourishes the mentality-materiality of rebirth-linking.
How? As soon as it is placed in the mouth, physical food as nutriment brings
into being the eight kinds of materiality (aforesaid). Then each lump of cooked
rice ground by the teeth, on being swallowed, brings into being unit after unit
of the eight kinds of materiality. Thus it nourishes the materiality with nutritive
essence as eighth.
But with contact as nutriment, when contact productive of pleasant feeling arises
it nourishes pleasant feeling; contact productive of painful feeling nourishes
painful feeling; contact productive of neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling
nourishes neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling. Thus in all ways contact as
nutriment nourishes the three kinds of feeling.
In the case of mental volition as nutriment, kamma leading to sense-sphere being
nourishes sense-sphere being; kamma leading to fine-material and immaterial
being nourishes its respective kind of being. Thus in all ways mental volition
as nutriment nourishes the three kinds of being.
But with consciousness as nutriment, it is said that it nourishes, by way of
conascence condition, etc., the three (immaterial) aggregates associated with
itself at the moment of rebirth-linking and the thirty kinds of materiality
that arise by way of triple continuity. Thus consciousness nourishes the mentality-materiality
of rebirth-linking.[27]
And here, by the words "mental volition as nutriment nourishes the three
kinds of being," only the wholesome and unwholesome volition accompanied
by taints is meant; by the words "consciousness nourishes the mentality-materiality
of rebirth-linking," only rebirth-linking consciousness is meant. However,
these are to be understood indiscriminately as nutriments as well because they
nourish the states that are associated with them and originated by them.
The Four Functions
As regards these four kinds of nutriment, physical food as nutriment accomplishes
the function of nutriment by sustaining, contact by contacting (touching), mental
volition by accumulating, consciousness by cognizing.
How? Physical food as nutriment, by sustaining, is for the maintenance of beings
by maintaining the body. For this body, though generated by kamma, is sustained
by physical food and stands for ten years or a hundred years up to the end of
the life-span. Like what? Like a child which, though given birth by the mother,
is nurtured by the milk, etc., given to him to drink by the wet-nurse and thus
lives long. Also, as a house is supported by a prop. This too has been said
(untraced): "Great king, just as, when a house is collapsing, they prop
it up with other timber, and that house, being propped up by other timber, does
not collapse, so too this body is supported by nutriment, persists in dependence
upon nutriment."
Thus physical food as nutriment accomplishes the function of nutriment by sustaining.
Accomplishing it thus, physical food as nutriment becomes a condition for two
material continuities, namely, for that originated by nutriment and that kammically
acquired.[28] It is a condition for the kamma-born materiality by becoming its
preserver. It is a condition for that originated by nutriment by becoming its
producer.
Then contact, by contacting the object which is the basis for pleasure, etc.,
is "for the maintenance of beings" by causing the occurrence of pleasant
feeling, etc. Mental volition, accumulating by way of wholesome and unwholesome
kamma, is "for the maintenance of beings" because it provides the
root of existence. Consciousness, by cognizing, is "for the maintenance
of beings" by causing the occurrence of mentality-materiality.
The Four Dangers
Now, while these are accomplishing their function of nutriment by sustaining,
etc., four dangers are to be seen: the danger of desire in the case of physical
food as nutriment; the danger of approach in the case of contact; (the danger)
of accumulating in the case of mental volition; and (the danger) of launching
[into a new existence here or there by way of taking rebirth-linking] in the
case of consciousness.
What are the reasons (for this)? Because, having aroused desire for physical
food, beings face cold, etc., to undertake such work as checking, accounting,
etc., and incur not a little suffering. And some who have gone forth in this
dispensation seek nutriment through such improper means as the practice of medicine,
etc., and they are to be censured here and now, and hereafter they become "recluse
ghosts" in the manner described thus in the Lakkhana Samyutta: "And
his outer robe was burning, blazing," etc.[29] For this reason, desire
itself is to be understood as the danger in physical food as nutriment.
Those who approach contact, who find gratification in contact, commit crimes
in respect of others' guarded and protected belongings, such as their wives,
etc. When the owners of the goods catch them with their belongings, they cut
them into pieces or throw them onto a rubbish heap, or hand them over to the
king; and then the king has various tortures inflicted upon them. And with the
breakup of the body, after death, a bad destination is to be expected for them.
Thus this entire danger -- that pertaining to the here and now and that pertaining
to the afterlife -- has come about rooted in contact. For this reason, approach
is to be understood as the danger in the case of the nutriment contact.
The entire danger in the three realms of existence has come about by the accumulation
of wholesome and unwholesome kamma and is rooted in that (accumulation). For
this reason, accumulation is to be understood as the danger in the nutriment
mental volition.
And in whatever place rebirth-linking consciousness launches (the new existence),
in that same place it is reborn by seizing the rebirth-linking mentality-materiality.
When it is produced, all dangers are produced, for they are all rooted in it.
For this reason, launching is to be understood as the danger in the nutriment
consciousness.
The Four Similes
In regard to these nutriments with their dangers, for the sake of eliminating
desire for the nutriment physical food, the Fully Enlightened One taught the
simile of son's flesh in the passage beginning thus: "Suppose, bhikkhus,
a couple, a man and his wife,..." For the sake of eliminating desire for
the nutriment contact, he taught the simile of the flayed cow in the passage
beginning thus: "Suppose, bhikkhus, there was a flayed cow..." For
the sake of eliminating desire for the nutriment mental volition, he taught
the simile of the charcoal pit in the passage beginning thus: "Suppose,
bhikkhus, there was a charcoal pit..." And for the sake of eliminating
desire for the nutriment consciousness, he taught the simile of the man struck
with three hundred spears in the passage beginning thus: "Suppose, bhikkhus,
there was a thief, a crook..."[30]
Therein, taking the essential meaning, there follows a brief interpretation
of the meaning. A couple, it is said, a man and his wife, took their son and
set out on a desert trail a hundred yojanas long,[31] with only limited provisions.
When they had gone fifty yojanas their provisions ran out. Exhausted by hunger
and thirst, they sat down in some scanty shade. Then the man said to his wife:
"My dear, for fifty yojanas on all sides there is neither a village nor
a town. Therefore, though a man can do many kinds of work, such as plowing,
guarding cattle, etc., it is not possible for me to do that. Come, kill me.
Eat half of my flesh, and having made the other half into provisions for the
journey, cross out of the desert together with our son."
The wife said: "Dear husband, though a woman can do many kinds of work,
such as spinning thread, etc., it is not possible for me to do that. Come, kill
me. Eat half of my flesh, and having made the other half into provisions for
the journey, cross out of the desert together with our son."
Then the man said: "My dear, the death of the mother would mean the death
of two, for a young boy cannot live without his mother. But if we both live,
then we can beget another child again. Come now, let us kill our child, take
his flesh, and cross out of this desert."
Then the mother said to the son: "Dear, go to your father." He went,
but the father said: "For the sake of supporting this child I incurred
much suffering through such work as plowing, guarding cattle, etc. I cannot
kill the boy. You kill your son." Then he said: "Dear, go to your
mother." But the mother said: "Longing for a son I incurred much suffering
by observing the cow-observance, the dog-observance, praying to the gods, etc.,
not to speak of bearing him in my womb.[32] It is not possible for me to kill
him." Then she said: "Dear, go to your father."
The boy died from going back and forth between the father and the mother. Seeing
him dead, they wept, and having taken the flesh as described above, they departed.
Because that flesh of their son was repulsive to them for nine reasons, it was
not eaten for enjoyment nor for intoxication nor for making (the body) strong
and beautiful, but only for the purpose of crossing out of the desert.
For what nine reasons was it repulsive? Because it was the flesh of their own
offspring, the flesh of a relative, the flesh of a son, the flesh of a dear
son, the flesh of a youngster, raw flesh, not beef, unsalted, unspiced. Therefore
the bhikkhu who sees the nutriment physical food thus, as similar to son's flesh,
eliminates the desire for it.[33]
This, in the first place, is the interpretation of the meaning of the simile
of son's flesh.
Then, as regards the simile of the flayed cow: If a cow were stripped of its
skin from the neck to the hooves and then set free, whatever it would rest upon
would become a basis of pain for it, since it would be bitten by the small creatures
living there.[34] So too, whatever physical basis or object contact stands upon
as its support becomes a basis for the felt pain originating from that basis
or object.[35] Therefore a bhikkhu who sees the nutriment contact thus, as similar
to a flayed cow, eliminates the desire for it. This is the interpretation of
the meaning of the simile of the flayed cow.
Then, as regards the simile of the charcoal pit:[36] The three realms of being
are like a charcoal pit in the sense of a great burning heat (lit., a great
fever). Like the two men who grab hold (of a weaker man) by both his arms and
drag him towards it, is mental volition in the sense that it drags one towards
the realms of being. Therefore a bhikkhu who sees the nutriment mental volition
thus, as similar to a charcoal pit, eliminates the desire for it. This is the
interpretation of the meaning of the simile of the charcoal pit.
Then, as regards the simile of the man struck with three hundred spears:[37]
The hundred spears that strike the man in the morning make a hundred wound openings
in his body, and without remaining inside they pierce through and fall on the
other side; and so with the other two hundred spears as well. Thus his whole
body is cut again and again by the spears which come without piercing him in
a place where another has already struck. There is no measuring the pain arisen
in him from even one of the wound openings, not to speak of three hundred wound
openings.
Therein, the time of the generation of the rebirth-linking consciousness is
like the time of being struck by a spear. The production of the aggregates is
like the production of the wound openings. The arising of the various kinds
of suffering rooted in the round (of existence) once the aggregates have been
born is like the arising of suffering on account of the wound openings.
Another method of interpretation (is as follows): The rebirth-linking consciousness
is like the thief. His mentality-materiality conditioned by consciousness is
like the wound openings created by the striking of the spears. The arising of
the various kinds of suffering by way of the thirty-two types of torture and
the eighty-nine types of diseases in regard to consciousness conditioned by
mentality-materiality -- this should be regarded as like the arising of severe
pain for that man conditioned by the wound openings.
Therefore a bhikkhu who sees the nutriment consciousness thus, as similar to
one struck by three hundred spears, eliminates the desire for it. This is the
interpretation of the meaning of the simile of the man struck by three hundred
spears.
Full Understanding
Thus by eliminating desire in regard to these nutriments, he also fully understands
these four nutriments. When these have been fully understood, the entire basis
(for them) has also been fully understood. For this has been said by the Blessed
One (S.12:63/ii,99-100):
Bhikkhus, when the nutriment physical food has been fully understood, lust for
the five cords of sensual pleasure has been fully understood. When lust for
the five cords of sensual pleasure has been fully understood, there exists no
more any fetter bound by which the noble disciple might come back to this world.
Bhikkhus, when the nutriment contact has been fully understood, the three feelings
have been fully understood. When the three feelings have been fully understood,
there is nothing further for the noble disciple to do, I say.
Bhikkhus, when the nutriment mental volition has been fully understood, the
three kinds of craving have been fully understood. When the three kinds of craving
have been fully understood, there is nothing further for the noble disciple
to do, I say.
Bhikkhus, when the nutriment consciousness has been fully understood, mentality-materiality
has been fully understood. When mentality-materiality has been fully understood,
there is nothing further for the noble disciple to do, I say.
The Arising and Cessation of Nutriment
With the arising of craving there is the arising of nutriment (tanhasamudaya
aharasamudayo): This is the meaning: "With the arising of craving in the
previous (existence) the arising of the nutriments occurs at rebirth-linking
(in this existence)." How? Because at the moment of rebirth-linking there
is the nutritive essence produced among the thirty types of materiality that
have arisen by way of triple continuity.[38] This is the kammically acquired
physical food as nutriment produced by craving as its condition. But the contact
and volition associated with the rebirth-linking consciousness, and that mind
or consciousness itself -- these are the kammically acquired nutriments of contact,
mental volition and consciousness produced by craving as their condition. Thus,
in the first place, the arising of the nutriments at rebirth-linking should
be understood as occurring with the arising of craving in the previous existence.
But because the nutriments that are kammically acquired and those that are not
kammically acquired have been discussed here combined, (the principle of) the
arising of nutriment with the arising of craving should be understood to apply
also to those that are not kammically acquired. For there is nutritive essence
in the kinds of materiality that are aroused by the eight types of consciousness
accompanied by greed;[39] this is the nutriment physical food that is not kammically
acquired yet is produced by conascent craving as its condition. But the contact
and volition associated with the consciousness accompanied by greed, and that
mind or consciousness itself -- these are the nutriments of contact, mental
volition and consciousness that are not kammically acquired yet are produced
by craving as their condition.
With the cessation of craving there is cessation of nutriment (tanhanirodha
aharanirodho): By this there is set forth the cessation of nutriment by the
cessation of the craving that had become the condition for both nutriment that
is kammically acquired and that which is not kammically acquired. The rest (should
be understood) by the method stated, but there is this difference. Here the
four truths are stated directly, and as here, so in all the following sections.
Therefore one who is unconfused in mind can deduce the truths throughout in
what follows.[40]
12. And in all the following sections the delimiting phrase In that way too,
friends (ettavata pi kho avuso) should be construed according to the principle
that has been expounded. Here, in the first place, this is the interpretation
of it (in the present context). "In that way too": what is meant is:
"the attention and penetration stated by way of the teaching concerning
nutriment." The same method throughout.
The Four Noble Truths
14. Now, delighting and rejoicing in the Elder's words, after saying as before
"Good, friend," the bhikkhus asked a further question, and the Elder
answered them by another exposition. This method is found in all the following
sections. Therefore, from here onwards, we shall explain the meaning only of
the particular exposition he states in reply, without touching upon such words
(as are already explained).
15. In the brief exposition of this teaching, in the phrase (he) understands
suffering (dukkham pajanati), "suffering" is the truth of suffering.
But regarding the detailed exposition, whatever needs to be said has all been
said already in the Visuddhimagga in the Description of the Truths (XVI,13-104).
Aging and Death
21. From here onwards the teaching is given by way of dependent arising (paticca
samuppada).
22. Therein, in the section on aging and death, firstly as to the term their
(tesam tesam) -- this should be understood as a collective designation in brief
for the many kinds of beings. For if one were to state (the aging of individuals
such as) the aging of Devadatta, the aging of Somadatta, etc., one would never
come to an end of beings. But there is no being not included by this term "their."[41]
Therefore it was said above: "This should be understood as a collective
designation in brief for the many kinds of beings."
In the various (tamhi tamhi): This is a collective designation for the many
(different) orders by way of destiny and birth. Orders of beings (sattanikaye):
an indication of the nature of what is designated by the collective designation.
Aging, old age (jara jiranata), etc.: As regards these, "aging" is
the description of the nature; "old age" is the description of the
aspect; "brokenness," etc., are descriptions of the function with
respect to the passage of time; and the last two terms are descriptions of the
normal (process). For this is indicated as to nature by this term aging (jara);
hence this is a description of its nature. It is indicated as to aspect by this
term old age (jiranata); hence this is a description of its aspect. Brokenness
(khandicca): by this it is indicated as to the function of causing the broken
state of teeth and nails on account of the passage of time. Grayness (palicca):
by this it is indicated as to the function of causing the head hairs and body
hairs to turn gray. Wrinkling (valittacata): by this it is indicated as to the
wrinkled state of the skin after the withering of the flesh. Hence the three
terms beginning with brokenness are descriptions of function with respect to
the passage of time. By these evident aging is shown, which becomes evident
by the showing of these alterations. For just as the course taken by water or
wind or fire is evident from the damaged and broken state, or the burnt state,
of the grass and trees, etc., and yet the course that has been taken is not
the water, etc., itself, so too the course taken by aging is evident through
brokenness of teeth, etc., and it is apprehended by opening the eyes, but the
brokenness, etc., themselves are not aging, nor is aging cognizable by the eye.
Decline of life, weakness of faculties (ayuno samhani indriyanam paripako):
By these terms it is indicated by means of the normal (process) known as the
exhaustion of the life-span and the weakening of the eye faculty, etc., that
has become manifest with the passage of time. Hence these last two are to be
understood as descriptions of its normal (process).
Therein, because the life-span of one who has reached aging is dwindling, aging
is called "decline of life" as a metaphor (for the cause stated in
terms) of its effect. And because the eye faculty, etc. -- which at the time
of youth were quite clear and could easily grasp even subtle objects -- become
deficient, obscure, unable to grasp even gross objects when one has reached
old age, therefore it is called "weakness of faculties" also as a
metaphor (for the cause stated in terms) of its effect.
This aging, thus described, is all of two kinds, evident and concealed. Therein,
the aging of material phenomena, shown by brokenness, etc., is called evident
aging (pakatajara). But in the case of immaterial phenomena, because their alteration
in such a way is not visible, their aging is called concealed aging (paticchannajara).
Therein, the brokenness that is seen is simply color (vanna) because of the
ease of comprehending such things as the teeth, etc. Having seen this with the
eye and reflected on it with the mind door, one knows aging thus: "These
teeth have been afflicted by aging," just as one knows the existence of
water below when one has noticed the heads of cows, etc., bound to the place
where the water is located.
Again, aging is twofold thus: as continuous and as discrete. Therein, continuous
aging (avicijara) is the aging of such things as gems, gold, silver, coral,
the sun and moon, etc.; it is so called because of the difficulty of perceiving
in such things distinct changes in color, etc., at regular intervals, as we
can in the case of living beings passing through the decade of childhood, etc.,
and in the case of vegetation (lit. non-breathing things) such as flowers, fruits,
buds, etc. The meaning is: aging that progresses without interval. Discrete
aging (savicijara) is the aging of the things other than those, i.e., of the
aforesaid things (living beings and vegetation); it is so called because it
is easy to perceive in them distinct changes in color, etc., at regular intervals.
So it should be understood.
Following this (in the definition of death) the term their (tesam tesam) should
be understood by the method stated above (in the definition of aging). Then,
in the expression passing, passing away, etc., passing (cuti) is said by way
of what has the nature to pass away; this is a collective designation (applying)
to one-, four-, and five-aggregate (existence). Passing away (cavanata) is the
indication of the characteristic by a word expressing the abstract state. Dissolution
(bheda) is an indication of the occurrence of the breaking up of the aggregates
(at the time) of passing. Disappearance (antaradhana) is an indication of the
absence of any manner of persistence of the aggregates (at the time) of passing,
as they are broken like a broken pot.
Dying (maccu marana): death which is called dying. By this he rejects the idea
of death as complete annihilation. Completion of time (kalakiriya): time is
the destroyer, and this (completion of time) is its activity. By this he explains
death in conventional terminology.
Now, to explain death in (terms valid in) the ultimate sense, he next says the
dissolution of the aggregates (khandhanam bhedo), etc.[42] For in the ultimate
sense it is only the aggregates that break up; it is not any so called being
that dies. But when the aggregates are breaking up convention says "a being
is dying," and when they have broken up convention says "(he is) dead."
Here the dissolution of the aggregates is said by way of four- [and five-] constituent
being; the laying down of the body (kalevarassa nikkhepo) by way of one-constituent
being.[43] Or alternatively, the dissolution of the aggregates is said by way
of four-constituent being; the laying down of the body should be understood
by way of the other two (i.e., one- and five-constituent being). Why? Because
of the existence of the body, that is, the material body, in those two realms
of being. Or else, because in the realm of the Four Great Kings, etc., the aggregates
simply break up and they do not lay anything down, the dissolution of the aggregates
is said with reference to them.[44] The laying down of the body occurs among
human beings, etc. And here, because it is the cause for the laying down of
the body, death is called the laying down of the body. Thus the meaning should
be understood.
So this aging and this death are what is called aging and death (iti ayan ca
jara idan ca maranam idam vuccat'avuso jaramaranam): this is spoken of as "aging
and death" by combining the two into one.
Birth
26. In the section on birth, in regard to the phrase birth,... their coming
to birth, etc., birth (jati) is in the sense of being born; this is stated with
reference to those (conceived) with incomplete sense bases. Coming to birth
(sanjati) is in the sense of the act of coming to birth; this is stated with
reference to those (conceived) with already complete sense bases. Precipitation
(or descent, okkanti) is in the sense of being precipitated (descending). This
is stated with reference to those born from the egg and from the womb, for they
take rebirth-linking as though descending and entering the egg shell or the
placenta. Generation (abhinibbatti) is in the sense of being generated. This
is stated with reference to those born from moisture or those of spontaneous
birth, for these are generated as soon as they become manifest.
Now comes the exposition in (terms valid in) the ultimate sense. Manifestation
(patubhava) is the arising. Of the aggregates (khandhanam) is to be understood
as (the arising) of one aggregate in the one-constituent realm of being, of
four aggregates in four-constituent realms, and of five aggregates in five-constituent
realms. Obtaining (patilabha) is the manifestation in continuity. The bases
(ayatananam) should be understood as comprising the sense bases arising (at
conception) in this or that realm. For when the sense bases become manifest,
then they are said to be obtained.
This is called birth (ayam vuccat'avuso jati): by this phrase he comes to the
conclusion on birth taught in both conventional terms and in the ultimate sense.
With the arising of being (bhavasamudaya): but here one should understand kammically
active being as the condition for birth. The rest by the method stated.
Being
30. In the section on being, sense-sphere being (kamabhava) is kammically active
being and resultant being. Therein, kammically active being (kammabhava) is
kamma itself that leads to sense-sphere being. For that is called "being"
as a designation of the cause in terms of its effect, because it is the cause
for resultant being, as when it is said: "The arising of Buddhas is bliss"
and "The accumulation of evil is painful" (Dhp. 194, 117). Resultant
being (upapattibhava) is the group of kammically acquired aggregates produced
by that kamma. For that is called "being" because it exists there.
Thus this kamma and this result are both spoken of conjointly as "sense-sphere
being." The same method applies to fine-material being and immaterial being
(ruparupabhava).
With the arising of clinging (upadanasamudaya): But here clinging is a condition
for wholesome kammically active being only by way of decisive support; it is
a condition for unwholesome kammically active being by way of both decisive
support and conascence.[45] For all resultant being it is a condition only by
way of decisive support. The rest by the method stated.
Clinging
34. In the section on clinging, in regard to the phrase "clinging to sense
pleasures," etc., clinging to sense pleasures (kamupadana) is analyzed
thus: by this one clings to the object of sensual pleasure, or this itself clings
to it. Or alternatively: that is a sensual pleasure and it is clinging, thus
it is clinging to sensual pleasure. It is firm grasping (dalhagahana) that is
called clinging. For here the prefix upa has the sense of firmness. This is
a designation for the lust for the five cords of sensual pleasure. This is the
brief account here. The detailed account should be understood by the method
stated thus: "Therein, what is clinging to sensual pleasures? The sensual
desire in regard to sensual pleasures," etc. (Dhs. Section 1214).
So too, that is a view and clinging, thus it is clinging to views (ditthupadana).
Or alternatively: it clings to a view, or by this they cling to a view. For
the subsequent view clings to the previous view and thereby they cling to the
view. As it is said: "Self and the world are eternal; only this is true,
anything else is false," etc. (M.102/ii, 233). This is a designation for
the whole field of (wrong) views except clinging to rituals and observances
and clinging to a doctrine of self.[46] This is the brief account here. The
detailed account should be understood by the method stated thus: "Therein,
what is clinging to views? There is nothing given," etc. (Dhs. Section
1215).
So too, by this they cling to rituals and observances, or this itself clings
to them, or that is a ritual and observance and clinging, thus it is clinging
to rituals and observances (silabbatupadana). For when one adheres to the idea
that the cow ritual or cow observance brings purification, that itself is a
clinging.[47] This is the brief account here. The detailed account should be
understood by the method stated thus: "Therein, what is clinging to rituals
and observances? (The idea) of recluses and brahmans outside here (i.e., outside
the Buddha's dispensation) that purity (is achieved) by rules," etc. (Dhs.
Section 1216).
Now they assert in terms of this, thus it is a doctrine. By this they cling,
thus it is clinging. What do they assert? Or what do they cling to? Self. The
clinging to a doctrine about a self is the clinging to a doctrine of self (attavadupadana).
Or alternatively: by this a mere doctrine of self is clung to as self, thus
it is clinging to a doctrine of self. This is a designation for personality
view with its twenty cases. This is the brief account here. The detailed account
should be understood by the method stated thus: "Therein, what is clinging
to a doctrine of self? Here, the uninstructed worldling who has no regard for
noble ones," etc. (Dhs. Section 1217).
With the arising of craving (tanhasamudaya): here, craving is a condition for
clinging to sensual pleasures either by way of decisive support or by way of
proximity, contiguity, absence, disappearance and repetition.[48] But for the
rest (it is a condition) by way of conascence, etc., too. The rest by the method
stated.
Craving
38. In the section on craving, craving for forms... craving for mind-objects
(rupatanha... dhammatanha): these are names for the kinds of craving which occur
in the course of a javana cognitive process (javanavithi) in the eye door, etc.
Like a name derived from the father, such as Setthiputta ("merchant's son")
or Brahmanaputta ("brahman's son"), their names are derived from the
object, which is similar to the father [as being the cause (hetu) of it only,
not as is the case with "eye-contact," which is like a name derived
from the mother in that (the eye like the mother in relation to her son) is
a cause by its nature as a physical support (nissayabhava)].
And here, craving for forms is craving that has forms as its object, craving
in regard to forms. When this occurs by finding gratification in visible forms
through its nature as sensual lust, it is craving for sensual pleasure (kamatanha).
When it occurs by finding gratification in visible forms, thinking "Form
is permanent, lasting, eternal," through its nature as lust accompanied
by the eternalist view, then it is craving for being (bhavatanha). When it occurs
by finding gratification in visible form, thinking "Form is annihilated,
destroyed, and does not exist after death," through its nature as lust
accompanied by the annihilationist view, then it is craving for non-being (vibhavatanha).
Thus it is threefold. And as craving for form, so too craving for sound, etc.,
(are each threefold too). Thus there are eighteen modes of craving. These eighteen
in respect of internal visible form, etc., and in respect of external visible
form, etc., come to thirty-six. So thirty-six in the past, thirty-six in the
future, and thirty-six at present make up a hundred and eight.
Or there are eighteen based on internal form, etc., thus: "On account of
the internal there is (the notion) 'I am,' there is (the notion) 'I am such
and such,' " and so on; and there are eighteen based on external form,
etc., thus: "On account of the external there is (the notion) 'I am,' there
is (the notion) 'I am such and such,' " and so on. Thus there are thirty-six.
So thirty-six in the past, thirty-six in the future, and thirty-six at present
make up thus the hundred and eight modes of craving (tanhavicaritani; see A.
4:199/ii, 212).
Again, when a classification is made, they reduce to only six classes of craving
-- in terms of their objects, forms and the rest -- and to only three types
of craving -- craving for sensual pleasure and the rest. Thus:
Craving should be known by the wise
Through description and when described
In detail; it (should be known) again
Through classification of the detail.
With the arising of feeling there is the arising of craving (vedanasamudaya
tanhasamudayo): But here the word "feeling" is intended as resultant
feeling.[49] How is that the condition for craving in respect of the six sense
doors? Because of its ability to produce gratification. For it is through the
gratification in pleasant feeling that beings become enamored of that feeling,
and after arousing craving for feeling and being seized by lust for feeling,
they long only for a desirable visible form in the eye door. And on getting
it, they find gratification in it, and they honor painters, etc., who provide
such objects. Likewise, they long only for a desirable sound, etc., in the ear
door, etc. And on getting it, they find gratification in it, and they honor
musicians, perfume makers, cooks, spinners and the teachers of the various crafts.
Like what? Like those who, being enamored of a child, out of love for the child
honor the wet-nurse and give her suitable ghee, milk, etc., to eat and drink.
The rest by the method stated.
Feeling
42. In the section on feeling, classes of feeling (vedanakaya) means groups
of feeling. Feeling born of eye-contact... feeling born of mind-contact (cakkhusamphassaja
vedana... manosamphassaja vedana): because of what has come down in the Vibhanga
thus: "There is feeling born of eye-contact that is wholesome, that is
unwholesome, that is indeterminate" (Vibh. 15), the wholesome, unwholesome
and indeterminate feelings that occur in the eye door, etc., are named after
the physical base, which is similar to a mother, just as some are named after
their mother, such as "Sariputta (Lady Sari's son)," "Mantaniputta
(Lady Mantani's son)," etc.
But the word meaning here is this: feeling born of eye-contact (cakkhusamphassaja
vedana) is feeling that is born with eye-contact as the cause. The same method
throughout. This, in the first place, is the all-inclusive explanation. But
by way of resultant, in the eye-door there are two eye-consciousnesses, two
mind elements, three mind-consciousness elements; feeling should be understood
as what is associated with these.[50] This method also applies in the ear door,
etc. In the mind door, (feeling) is associated only with the mind-consciousness
elements.
With the arising of contact (phassasamudaya): But here the arising in the five
doors of the feelings that have the five physical bases (as their support) occurs
with the arising of the conascent eye-contact. For the rest, eye-contact, etc.,
are conditions by way of decisive support. In the mind door, the arising of
feelings (on the occasion) of registration and of the doorless feelings (on
the occasions) of rebirth-linking, life-continuum and death occurs with the
arising of the conascent mind-contact.[51] The rest by the method stated.
Contact
46. In the section on contact, eye-contact (cakkhusamphassa) is contact in the
eye. The same method throughout. Eye-contact... body-contact (cakkhusamphasso...
kayasamphasso): up to this point ten kinds of contact have been stated, namely,
the wholesome- and unwholesome-resultants having the five physical bases (as
their support). Mind-contact (manosamphassa): by this (he indicates) the remaining
twenty-two kinds of contact associated with the mundane resultant (types of
consciousness).[52]
With the arising of the sixfold base (salayatanasamudaya): The arising of this
sixfold contact should be understood to occur by way of the arising of the six
bases beginning with the eye-base. The rest by the method stated.
The Sixfold Base
50. In the section on the sixfold base, as regards the eye-base (cakkhayatana),
etc., whatever should be said has all been said already in the Visuddhimagga
in the Description of the Aggregates and in the Description of the Bases (XIV,
37-52; XV, 1-16).
With the arising of mentality-materiality (namarupasamudaya): But here the arising
of the sixfold base should be understood to occur from the arising of mentality-materiality
according to the method stated in the Visuddhimagga in the Description of Dependent
Arising, as to which mentality, which materiality, and which mentality-materiality
are a condition for which base (XVII, 206-219).
Mentality-Materiality
54. In the section on mentality-materiality, mentality (nama) has the characteristic
of bending (namana); materiality (rupa) has the characteristic of being molested
(ruppana).[53] In the detailed section, however, feeling (vedana) is to be understood
as the feeling aggregate, perception (sañña) as the perception
aggregate, and volition, contact and attention (cetana phasso manasikaro) as
the formations aggregate. While it is certainly the case that other states are
included in the formations aggregate, still these three are found in all classes
of consciousness, even the weakest. That is why the formations aggregate is
here pointed out only by means of these three.
The four great elements (cattari mahabhutani): this is a designation for the
four -- earth, water, fire and air. The reason why these are called "great
elements," and other determinations concerning them, are all stated in
the Visuddhimagga in the Description of the Materiality Aggregate.[54]
Derived from the four great elements (catunnan ca mahabhutanam upadaya): derived
from (upadaya) = having clung to (upadayitva); "having grasped" is
the meaning. Some also say "depending upon" (nissaya). And here the
reading is completed by adding the word "existing" (vattamanam). The
Pali uses the genitive (in the term for the elements) in the sense of a group.
Hence the meaning here should be understood thus: the materiality that exists
derived from the group of the four great elements.
Thus materiality taken altogether is to be understood as consisting of all the
following: the four great elements beginning with the earth element, and the
materiality that exists derived from the four great elements, stated in the
canonical Abhidhamma to be of twenty-three kinds by analysis into the eye-base,
etc.[55]
With the arising of consciousness (viññanasamudaya): But here
the arising of mentality-materiality should be understood to occur with the
arising of consciousness according to the method stated in the Visuddhimagga
in the Description of Dependent Arising, as to which consciousness is a condition
for which mentality, for which materiality, and for which mentality-materiality
(XVII, 186-202). The rest by the method stated.
Consciousness
58. In the section on consciousness, eye-consciousness (cakkhuviññana)
is consciousness in the eye or consciousness born from the eye. So also with
ear-, nose-, tongue- and body-consciousness. But with the other one, i.e., mind-consciousness
(manoviññana), mind itself is consciousness. This is a designation
for the resultant consciousness of the three (mundane) planes of existence except
for the two groups of fivefold consciousness.[56]
With the arising of formations (sankharasamudaya): But here the arising of consciousness
should be understood to occur with the arising of formations according to the
method stated in the Visuddhimagga, as to which formation is a condition for
which consciousness (XVII, 175-185).
Formations
62. In the section on formations, a formation (sankhara) has the characteristic
of forming (abhisankharanalakkhana). But in the detailed section, the bodily
formation (kayasankhara) is a formation that proceeds from the body. This is
a designation for the twenty kinds of bodily volition -- the eight sense-sphere
wholesome and twelve unwholesome -- that occur by way of activation in the bodily
door.[57] The verbal formation (vacisankhara) is a formation that proceeds from
speech. This is a designation for the (same) twenty kinds of verbal volition
that occur by way of breaking into speech in the door of speech. The mental
formation (cittasankhara) is a formation that proceeds from the mind. This is
a designation for the twenty-nine kinds of mental volition -- the mundane wholesome
and unwholesome -- that occur in one sitting alone in thought, and which do
not cause activation of the bodily and verbal doors.[58]
With the arising of ignorance (avijjasamudaya): But here ignorance should be
understood as a condition for the wholesome by way of decisive support and for
the unwholesome by way of conascence as well. The rest by the method stated.
Ignorance
66. In the section on ignorance, not knowing about suffering (dukkhe aññanam)
means not knowing about the truth of suffering. This is a designation for delusion
(moha). The same method with respect to "not knowing about the origin of
suffering," and so on.
Herein, not knowing about suffering should be understood in four ways: as to
containment (antogadhato), as to physical basis (vatthuto), as to object (arammanato),
and as to concealment (paticchadanato). Thus, because of being included in the
truth of suffering, it ("not knowing" or ignorance) is contained in
suffering; and the truth of suffering is its physical basis by being its support
condition; and (the truth of suffering) is its object by being its object condition;
and it conceals the truth of suffering by preventing the penetration of its
real characteristic and by not allowing knowledge to occur in regard to it.
Not knowing about the origin (of suffering) should be understood in three ways:
as to physical basis, as to object, and as to concealment. And not knowing about
cessation and the way (to cessation) should be understood in one way only: as
to concealment. For non-knowledge only conceals cessation and the way by preventing
the penetration of their real characteristics and by not allowing knowledge
to occur in regard to them. But it is not contained in them because it is not
included in this pair of truths. And these two truths are not its physical basis
because they are not conascent. Nor are they its object because of its non-occurrence
on account of them. For the last pair of truths are difficult to see because
of their profundity, and non-knowledge, which is blind, does not occur there.
But the first (pair of truths) is profound in the sense of opposition because
of the difficulty in seeing the characteristic of their intrinsic nature; it
occurs there by way of obsession by the perversions.
Furthermore: About suffering (dukkhe): to this extent ignorance is indicated
as to inclusion, as to physical basis, as to object, and as to function. About
the origin of suffering (dukkhasamudaye): to this extent, as to basis, as to
object, and as to function. About the cessation of suffering (dukkhanirodhe)
and about the way leading to the cessation of suffering (dukkhanirodhagaminiya
patipadaya): to this extent, as to function. But without distinction, (in each
instance) ignorance is described in terms of its intrinsic nature by the phrase
"not knowing."
With the arising of the taints (asavasamudaya): But here the taint of sensual
desire and the taint of being are conditions for ignorance by way of conascence,
etc.; the taint of ignorance, only by way of decisive support. And here the
ignorance that had arisen previously should be understood as the taint of ignorance.
That is a decisive support condition for the ignorance that arises subsequently.
The rest by the method stated.
The Taints
70. In the section on the taints, with the arising of ignorance (avijjasamudaya):
Here ignorance is a condition for the taint of sensual desire and the taint
of being by way of decisive support, etc.; (it is a condition) for the taint
of ignorance only by way of decisive support. And here the ignorance that arises
subsequently should be understood as the taint of ignorance. The previously
arisen ignorance itself becomes a decisive support condition for the subsequently
arisen taint of ignorance. The rest by the aforesaid method.
This section is stated by way of showing the condition for the ignorance which
heads the factors of dependent arising. Stated thus, the undiscoverability (anamataggata)
of any beginning of samsara is established. How? Because with the arising of
the taints there is the arising of ignorance, and with the arising of ignorance
there is the arising of the taints. Thus the taints are a condition for ignorance,
and ignorance is a condition for the taints. Having shown this, (it follows
that) no first point of ignorance is manifest, and because none is manifest
the undiscoverability of any beginning of samsara is proven.[59]
Conclusion
Thus in all this sutta sixteen sections have been stated: the section on the
courses of kamma, the section on nutriment, the section on suffering, and the
sections on aging and death, birth, being, clinging, craving, feeling, contact,
the sixfold base, mentality-materiality, consciousness, formations, ignorance
and the taints.
As to these, in each individual section there is a twofold analysis -- in brief
and in detail -- amounting to thirty-two cases. Thus in this sutta, in these
thirty-two cases, the Four (Noble) Truths are expounded. Among these, in the
sixteen cases stated in detail, Arahantship is expounded.
But according to the opinion of the Elder, the four truths and the four paths
are expounded in the thirty-two cases.[60] Thus in the entire Word of the Buddha
comprised in the five great Nikayas, there is no sutta except for this Discourse
on Right View where the Four (Noble) Truths are explained thirty-two times and
where Arahantship is explained thirty-two times.
That is what the Venerable Sariputta said (idam avoc'ayasma Sariputto): The
Venerable Sariputta spoke this Discourse on Right View, having adorned it with
sixty-four divisions -- thirty-two expositions of the four truths and thirty-two
expositions of Arahantship. The bhikkhus were satisfied and delighted in the
Venerable Sariputta's words.
In the Papañcasudani, the Commentary to the Majjhima Nikaya, the Explanation
of the Discourse on Right View is concluded.
Notes
1. The term sammaditthi is ordinarily used to mean simply a state, the path
factor of right view. Here, however, the Pali expression is used as a masculine
noun to mean, in the first instance, a person possessing right view; hence it
has been rendered "one of right view." The commentator contrasts this
unusual usage of the term with the more common usage where sammaditthi signifies
a state (dhamma), that is, the path factor rather than the individual endowed
with that state.
2. The knowledge of kamma as one's own (kammassakatañana) is often expressed
in the Suttas thus: "I am the owner of my kamma, the heir of my kamma,
I spring from my kamma, I am bound to my kamma, I have kamma as my refuge. Whatever
kamma I perform, good or bad, of that I am the heir." In short, it is knowledge
of the moral efficacy of action, of the fact that one's willed deeds fashion
one's destiny. Knowledge in conformity with the truths (saccanulomikañana)
is conceptual knowledge of the Four Noble Truths, accompanied by understanding
and acceptance of them.
3. The understanding or wisdom (pañña) connected with the paths
and fruits is supramundane because its object is the supramundane dhamma, Nibbana,
and because it leads to the overcoming of the world.
4. A disciple in higher training (sekha) is one at any of the three lower levels
of sanctity -- a stream-enterer, once-returner, or non-returner -- or one who
has reached their respective paths. His right view is said to be fixed in destiny
(niyata) because it necessarily leads to final liberation.
5. The "one beyond training" (asekha) is the Arahant, so called because
he has completed the threefold training in virtue, concentration and wisdom.
6. The ninefold supramundane Dhamma: the four paths, the four fruitions, and
Nibbana.
7. The interpretation of "the bhikkhus" and "the Elder"
is offered by Sub. Cy., which also presents an alternative interpretation, based
on the commentary to the Vatthupama Sutta (M.7) according to which the bhikkhus
are the pupils of the Elder Mahasangharakkhita and "the Elder" is
the Elder Mahasangharakkhita.
8. See commentary to the third parajika offence.
9. See commentary to the second parajika offence.
10. The meaning of several of these terms, obscure in the original Pali, has
been elaborated with the aid of the Sub. Cy.
11. Consent (adhivasana) is included to cover the case where one of the partners
is initially an unwilling victim of another's assault, but during the course
of union consents to the act and thereby becomes a participant.
12. These are references to the two great classics of Hindu India, the Mahabharata
and the Ramayana.
13. Wrong views of fixed destiny (niyata micchaditthi) are views which deny
the moral efficacy of action or which tend to undermine the foundations of morality.
For the most common examples, see D.2/i, 52-56, and M.76/i, 515-18.
14. The chief factor in the first seven courses of kamma is volition; the other
three courses are identical with the mental factors of greed, hatred and wrong
view, which are associated with volition in the states of consciousness in which
they arise.
15. This refers to the Abhidhamma classification of consciousness, according
to which wholesome sense-sphere consciousness is of eight types, four associated
with knowledge, four dissociated from knowledge. The abstinences, according
to the Abhidhamma, occur in sense-sphere consciousness only one at a time on
occasions when one deliberately abstains from some wrong. In supramundane consciousness
all three abstinences -- right speech, right action and right livelihood --
occur together simultaneously.
16. Right view is synonymous with the mental factor of wisdom (pañña)
or non-delusion (amoha); it is always accompanied by the other two wholesome
roots, though the latter do not necessarily occur in conjunction with right
view.
17. Literally, or in the strict sense (nippariyayena), only covetousness and
greed, being synonyms of craving (tanha), count as the origin of suffering.
But in a looser or figurative manner of exposition (pariyayena) all the roots
are the truth of the origin, since as roots of kamma they help to sustain the
round of rebirth and suffering. [Go back]
18. The guideline of conversion (avattahara) is one of the methods of deduction
in the exegetical guide, the Nettippakarana. According to this guideline, an
expositor of a sutta is to extract from a particular text a standard doctrinal
concept belonging to a dichotomy, and then taking this concept as a basis, he
is to show that the other member of the dichotomy is also implied by the passage
under consideration, and therefore "turns up" when the first member
is mentioned.
19. The path of non-return (anagamimagga) is stated because this path eradicates
all sensual lust and aversion.
20. The path of Arahantship is implied by the eradication of conceit and ignorance
and by the arousing of true knowledge.
21. The verb aharati normally means "to bring," but here it is rendered
as "nourish" to underscore its connection with ahara, nutriment.
22. On the four yoni or modes of generation, see M.12/i, 73.
23. According to the Abhidhamma, the nutriment proper is the material phenomenon
called nutritive essence (oja), while the solid food ingested is the mere "basis"
(vatthu) of the nutritive essence.
24. The point is that while in conventional terms food substances are distinguished
as gross or subtle, this distinction is made in terms of the physical base only.
The Abhidhamma classifies nutritive essence as subtle materiality (sukhumarupa);
it contrasts with gross materiality (olarikarupa), which includes only the five
sense organs and their objects.
25. This is the highest realm among the sense-sphere heavens. Above this come
the Brahma realms, where physical nutriment is non-existent.
26. This is the simplest kind of material group (rupakalapa) recognized by the
Abhidhamma theory of matter. It consists of the four primary elements, along
with color, smell, taste, and nutritive essence. All the more complex material
groups also contain these eight phenomena as their foundation. Material groups
in a living organism require an input of nutriment in order to endure in continuity.
27. Conascence condition (sahajatapaccaya) is the condition whereby the conditioning
state contributes to the arising or maintenance of another state, the conditionally
arisen state, when the latter arises simultaneously with itself. Consciousness
is a conascence condition for the three other mental aggregates -- feeling,
perception and mental formations -- both at rebirth and during the course of
life. At rebirth it is also a conascence condition for the "triple continuity,"
i.e., the three material decads of body-sensitivity, sexual determination and
the heart-base. Each of these consists of the above-mentioned eight material
units along with physical life and, as the tenth factor, the material phenomenon
after which it is named.
28. Kammically acquired materiality (upadinnarupa) is matter that is born of
kamma. It includes the physical sense faculties, the life faculty, masculinity,
femininity, and the coexisting material phenomena in the same group. Though
such types of matter are produced by kamma rather than by nutriment, they require
nutriment to sustain them in continuity.
29. The Lakkhana Samyutta (S.19/ii, 254-62) describes the torments experienced
by beings in the realm of the petas or "afflicted spirits."
30. These similes are taken from the Puttamamsa Sutta, the Discourse on Son's
Flesh (S.12:63/ii, 97-100). See Nyanaponika Thera, The Four Nutriments of Life
(BPS Wheel No. 104/105, 1967), pp. 19-40, for the sutta along with its commentary.
31. A yojana is about seven miles.
32. The cow-observance and the dog-observance are forms of self-mortification
which ascetics of the Buddha's time practiced in the hope of purification; see
M.57/i, 387. Apparently, women also observed them for short periods in the hope
they would make them fertile.
33. The commentary to the Puttamamsa Sutta develops this analogy in greater
detail than the present commentary.
34. The sutta elaborates as follows: If the cow stands, the creatures in the
air attack it; if it leans against a wall, the creatures in the wall attack
it; if it lies down, the creatures in the ground attack it; if it enters a pool
of water, the creatures in the water attack it.
35. Contact arises from the coming together of an object, a physical basis or
sense faculty (vatthu), and the corresponding type of consciousness.
36. The simile as given in the sutta is this: Two strong men grab hold of a
weaker man by both arms and drag him towards a blazing charcoal pit. He wriggles
and struggles to get free because he knows that if he is thrown into the pit,
he will meet death or deadly pain.
37. The king's men arrest a thief and bring him before the king. The king orders
him struck with a hundred spears in the morning, another hundred at noon, and
a third hundred in the evening. The man survives but experiences deadly pain.
38. See note 27.
39. The eight types of consciousness accompanied by greed are distinguished
by the presence or absence of wrong view, by their accompanying feeling which
may be pleasant or neutral, and by whether they are spontaneous or prompted.
40. The principle of the Four Noble Truths can be discerned in the format of
the exposition: a particular item X, the arising of X, the cessation of X, and
the way to the cessation of X.
41. In Pali the repetition tesam tesam, lit. "of them, of them," is
understood to imply complete inclusiveness. The same applies to tamhi tamhi,
"in that, in that," just below.
42. Whereas the previous definitions were framed in conventional terminology,
those valid in the ultimate sense (paramatthato) define their subject solely
in terms of "ultimate realities" such as aggregates and sense bases.
43. The various realms of existence are analyzed as threefold on the basis of
the number of aggregates existing there. One-constituent being is the non-percipient
realm (asannibhumi), which includes only the aggregate of material form. Four-constituent
being is the four immaterial realms, which contain the four mental aggregates
but not the aggregate of material form. Five-constituent being comprises all
other realms, in which all five aggregates are present.
44. It seems that in the sense-sphere heavens, at death the beings simply dissipate
into thin air, without leaving behind any corpse.
45. Decisive support condition (upanissayapaccaya) and conascence condition
(sahajatapaccaya) are the two chief conditions among the twenty-four conditions
of the Patthana or Abhidhammic system of conditional relations. Decisive support
holds between a conditioning state and a conditioned state that it helps to
arise across an interval of time. Conascence condition holds between a conditioning
state and a conditioned state that arise simultaneously. See also note 27 above.
46. Clinging to rituals and observances and clinging to a doctrine of self are
both types of wrong view, but as they are enumerated as individual kinds of
clinging in their own right, they are not included under clinging to views.
47. See above, note 32.
48. These are conditional relations that hold between successive mind-moments
in the javana phase of a single cognitive process (cittavithi).
49. Resultant feeling alone is intended here because this is an exposition of
the round of existence, and in the formula of dependent arising the factors
from consciousness through feeling are classified as the resultant phase of
the round.
50. The two eye-consciousness elements are the wholesome-resultant and the unwholesome-resultant;
the two resultant mind elements are the wholesome-resultant and the unwholesome-resultant
receiving consciousness (sampaticchanacitta); the three resultant mind-consciousness
elements are three types of investigating consciousness (santiranacitta).
51. The registration consciousness (tadarammanacitta) is a resultant type of
consciousness that occurs through any of the sense doors. Its function is to
register the datum that had been the object of the preceding javana series.
The rebirth, life-continuum (bhavanga) and death consciousnesses are resultants
that are considered to be "doorless" (advarika) because they occur
at an inner subliminal level, not through the intercourse of sense organs and
sense objects.
52. This refers to the Abhidhamma classification of thirty-two types of resultant
consciousness, of which twenty-two remain besides the ten types of sense-consciousness,
five resultants of the unwholesome and five of the wholesome. The details are
not necessary here.
53. These two definitions involve word plays difficult to reproduce in English.
Ven. Ñanamoli has a note suggesting, half flippantly, "minding"
for namana and "mattering" for ruppana.
54. In fact the Visuddhimagga discusses the four great elements not in its chapter
on the Description of the Aggregates (Ch. XIV), but in the chapter on the meditation
subject called the definition of the elements (Ch. XI).
55. Some instances of derived materiality are: the five sense faculties, color,
sound, smell, taste, the life faculty, sexual determination, nutritive essence,
space, etc.
56. The three planes of existence were enumerated in Section 30. Only resultant
consciousness is taken into account here because this is an exposition of the
round.
57. The figures for the types of consciousness again come from the Abhidhamma.
These types of consciousness can come to expression either through the door
of bodily action or the door of speech, or they can remain within and not gain
outer expression.
58. The nine types of volition which do not come to expression by body or speech
are the five volitions of the five fine-material-sphere jhanas and the four
of the four immaterial-sphere jhanas.
59. Elsewhere the Buddha says: "A first point of ignorance cannot be discovered,
of which it can be said: Before that there was no ignorance and it came to be
after that" (A.10:61/v,113). In that sutta the Buddha cites the five hindrances
as the condition for ignorance, but as these in turn presuppose ignorance, the
vicious cycle is again established.
60. For the identity of the dissenting Elder, see Section 3 and note 7.
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