Psychology
is a science that investigates the mental activities of human life. In the West,
it originated from medical science, philosophy, natural science, religion, education
and sociology, and extends into a myriad of other disciplines and practices. In
today's society, psychology is applied to education, industry, business, health
care, national defense, law, politics, sociology, science, arts and even sports.
Its importance increases as time goes on.
Psychology examines the mental functions
of mind and the modes of human behavior. Psychologists in the West use it to study
the development of personality and the determinants of behavior. Because of its
inherent limitations, Western Psychology has been only partially successful in
personality transformation and improvement. Buddhism, on the other hand, understands
very deeply the psychological nature of human beings and has developed some effective
methods for treatment. As revealed in The Avatamsaka Sutra, "Our perception
of the Three Realms arise from the mind, so do the twelve links of dependent origination;
A birth and death emanate from the mind, they are extinguished when the mind is
put to rest."
The analysis of mind in Buddhism is both multifaceted and
sophisticated. As a spiritual practice, Buddhism contains numerous descriptions
of the nature and function of the mind and instructions on how to search for,
abide with and refine it. In this regard, Buddhist Psychology has a lot to offer
along with Western Psychology.
How Buddhism Looks at the Mind
At first,
"psychology" meant "a science which explains the psyche."
Later it was expanded to "a behavioral science for studying human problems."
This development is consistent with how life and the universe are viewed in Buddhism:
"from the mind all phenomena arises." Buddhism interprets everything
in the world as the manifestation of our mind. It investigates and analyzes human
behavioral problems at the most fundamental level. From this perspective, Buddhism
can be considered a fully developed system of psychology.
All the Buddha's
teachings deal with the mind, as shown in the multitude of sutras and sastras.
Among them, the psychological understanding spoken of by the Mind-only (Yogacara)
School is closest to its counterpart in today's psychology. The Yogacara texts
are used to explain Buddhist Psychology.
The Yogacara view that the mind consists
of eight consciousnesses clearly indicates that it is not made of a single element,
but an interactive complexity of factors. These factors are the functions of the
six sensory organs of the human body (eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body, and mental
function) plus the consciousness which constantly grasps the "self"
(the Manas) and the Alaya consciousness (the supra- unconsciousness, referred
to as the "master of the mind" in Buddhist texts) which collects and
stores all karmic seeds of the mind in the ongoing cycle of birth and death of
all sentient beings. To a Buddhist, the "self" at this moment reflects
everything accumulated from the past. The "self" in the future depends
on the actions of the present. That is, "what one receives in this life is
what one had cultivated in previous lives; what one receives in a future life
is what one creates in this life."
"The Three Realms are mere manifestation
of mind; so are the myriad of dharmas." All phenomena in this life, and in
the universe, are nothing but mirror images imprinted on our mind through the
eight consciousnesses. Our eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body and mind discriminate
and grasp sight, sound, smell, taste, touch and thoughts. In accordance with each
individual's capacity for discernment, these images are further processed and
recognized as real or unreal, and then used to construct what one believes to
be "this life and the world." In reality, all things constantly change
in a cycle of formation, abiding, destruction and emptiness. Our thoughts and
ideas also arise, abide, change and disappear instantaneously in the cycle of
birth and death. Where can one find a life or a world which truly exists without
change? Everything in the universe can only be found in perceptions and interpretations!
The
Alaya consciousness is like a big storehouse full of past memories of love, hatred,
goodwill and animosity which we may no longer recall in this life. It perpetually
influences our actions and behaviors in this life and is referred to as ignorance
in Buddhism. Because of the karmic influence of this ignorance, we go through
the cycle of birth and death. When the unwholesome seeds from the past mature,
we become afflicted and are tempted to commit non-virtuous acts, which in turn
become unwholesome seeds for the future. When the wholesome seeds from the past
mature, our hearts are pure and noble, our minds are clear and intelligent and
we perform virtuous deeds which become wholesome seeds again in the Alaya consciousness.
In the teachings of the Mind-only School, it is said, "Seeds give rise to
actions, then actions turn into new seeds." The psychological motives of
all human behaviors are explained through this model.
Due to the influence
of our ignorance from the past, we are prone to make judgments which result in
negative feelings. Reinforced by greed and anger, our minds become confused and
form incorrect views about things in the world. However, just as plants require
sunshine and rain to blossom and bear fruit, similar conditions are required for
the development of human behavior. Although deep in the unconscious level of the
human mind lie feelings of love, hatred and positive or negative intentions, at
the time when these feelings are provoked by people or things from outside surroundings,
one can rely on our true mind and wisdom to avoid negative deeds from occurring
and create virtuous conduct instead.
The development of our true mind and its
wisdom relies on the diligent practice of upholding the precepts, developing concentration
and increasing awareness and insight. This process which transforms a deluded
mind into our true mind is described in Buddhism as "converting consciousness
into wisdom". Consciousness carries the psychological baggage of past experiences.
The wisdom emitted from our true mind is the therapy or treatment for human beings
in their attempt to resolve any internal conflicts within their minds, to transcend
suffering in this lifetime and to escape from the cycle of birth and death in
coming lives.
The Mind-only School further classifies the psychological responses
of human beings into fifty-one categories and refers to them as "the attributes
of the mind." These include:
1. Five basic psychological functions: mental
and physical contact, attention, feeling, identification and analysis.
2.
Five deliberately created mental conditions: aspiration, comprehension, memory,
concentration and wisdom.
3. Eleven wholesome psychological states: trust,
diligence, humility, remorse, no greed, no hatred, no ignorance, tranquility,
attentiveness, equanimity, and no harm.
4. Six root afflictions: greed, hatred,
ignorance, arrogance, doubt and incorrect view.
5. Twenty unwholesome psychological
states: anger, hostility, irritation, conceit, deceit, flattery, arrogance, malice,
jealousy, stinginess, no remorse, no regret, no trust, laziness, insensitivity,
apathy, agitation, forgetfulness, incorrect perception and heedlessness.
6.
Four neutral states of mind: remorse, sleepiness, applied thought and sustained
thought.
The above categorization of human psychological responses in Buddhism
is rather comprehensive and sophisticated. Today's psychology researchers will
gain a lot if they can study Buddhism in addition to psychology.
The Allegories
of the Mind
In Buddhism, the root cause of human suffering, and other problems,
is identified as the mind. It thus proposes to tap into this invaluable resource
by transforming any unwholesomeness into wholesomeness. Buddhism instructs sentient
beings on how to recognize the mind, calm the mind and handle the mind. The Buddha
taught, in his life time, for forty-nine years. Whether his teachings were about
the Four Noble Truths, the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination, the Six Paramitas,
or the Four Encompassing Principles, they invariably involved mind. The mind dictates
a person's behavior. If a person's mind is pure, all his/her thoughts, speech
and actions, will necessarily be pure. If a person's mind is impure, what he/she
hears and sees becomes impure. Therefore, it is said in one sutra, "When
the mind is impure, the being is impure; when the mind is pure, the being is pure."
All
the pain and suffering in this world are created by the mind. Our minds have wandered
among the Six Realms in numberless lives. It seems that we are never in control.
The mind always attaches to colorful external surroundings, seeking tirelessly
for fame, fortune, power and love, constantly calculating and discriminating.
The truth is, our mind was originally capable of embracing everything just like
that of the Buddha's. It was like the sun and moon, capable of breaking through
darkness. It was like fertile soil, capable of enriching the roots of virtue and
growing trees of merit. It was like a bright mirror, capable of reflecting everything
clearly and truthfully. It was like an ocean, full of immeasurable resources and
treasures. In the Buddhist canons, the Buddha often used simple stories to describe
the mind. A summary of ten of them is listed below:
1. The mind is like a monkey,
difficult to control: As is said in an old proverb, "the mind resembles a
monkey and the thoughts resemble horses." The mind is compared to a monkey
that is hyperactive, jumping and swinging between tree limbs without any moment
of rest.
2. The mind is as quick as lighting and thunder: The mind is compared
to lighting, thunder, or a spark created by striking a stone. It functions so
rapidly that at the moment of thought, it has traveled throughout the universe
without any obstruction. For instance, when one thinks about taking a trip to
Europe or America, immediately the scenery of Europe and America will surface
in his/her mind, as if he/she were already present in those places.
3. The
mind is like a wild deer, chasing after sensory pleasure all the time: The wild
deer runs in the wilderness and becomes thirsty. To search for water, it scrambles
in four directions, looking for a stream. Our mind is like this wild deer, it
can hardly resist the temptation of the five sensual desires and the six sensory
objects. It chases after sight, sound and other sensory pleasures all the time.
4. The mind is like a robber stealing our virtues and merits: Our body is
like a village, with the five sensory organs as the five entrances, and the mind
is the thief in the village who steals beneficial deeds and merits that we have
laboriously accumulated, leaving us with a negative impression in other's minds
and a poor life style. Confucian scholar Wang Yangming once said, "It's much
easier to catch bandits hidden in the wilderness than to eradicate the thief in
our mind." If we can tame the thief in our mind, making it obedient and compliant,
we will become the master of our mind and capable of fostering superior virtues
and merits.
5. The mind is like an enemy inflicting suffering upon us: the
mind acts like our foes and enemies, aiming at creating trouble for us, causing
us all kinds of pain and suffering. In one sutra, it says, "Unwholesomeness
in itself is empty because it is a creation of the mind; if the mind is purified,
unwholesomeness will be gone in no time." Our mind has Buddha Nature as its
original quality which is pure, free and contented. But numerous delusions have
caused afflictions to our body and spirit. If we can eliminate our delusions and
false views, we will be able to make friends with this enemy.
6. The mind
is like a servant to various irritations: The mind acts as if it is the servant
of external objects, catering to and driven constantly by these objects, resulting
in numerous afflictions. In another sutra, it says that our mind has three poisons,
five hindrances, ten defilements, eighty- eight impediments, and eighty-four-
thousand aggravations! These hindrances, obstacles, defilements and impediments
are all capable of impeding our wisdom, restraining our mind and spirit and making
us restless. To turn our mind from a servant into a master depends largely on
how we train it.
7. The mind is like a master having the highest authority:
The mind is the boss of the body. It possesses the highest authority. It leads,
governs and commands everything including our eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body and
mental activities to produce sensory feelings and cognitive functions.
8.
The mind is like an ever-flowing spring: Our mind is similar to running water
gushing incessantly. It holds unlimited potential and contains immeasurable treasures.
If we can effectively utilize our spring of wisdom, we will be free from the fear
of being scarcity.
9. The mind is like an artist who paints: The Avatamsaka
Sutra says, "The mind is like a master painter experienced at painting all
sorts of things." Our mind is very much like a skillful painter who can draw
various pictures. When one's mind is inspired by wise ones and sages, one's appearance
will seem wise and enlightened. When one's mind is occupied by malice and hostility,
one's appearance will look fierce and repulsive like that of a devil or ghost.
In other words, "As one's mind changes, so does one's appearance."
10.
The mind is like space without limit: The nature of mind is as expansive as the
limitless space. It is capable of encompassing everything in the universe. In
another sutra, it says, "If one wants to comprehend the enlightened state
of a Buddha, one has to purify his/her mind so it becomes empty like space."
Space is vast and enormous without borders or edges. Space supports everything
but grasps nothing. If we want to understand the enlightened states of the Buddhas,
we have to expand our mind so that it becomes limitless and boundless like the
sky, friction-free and carefree like space. Then our mind will be able to embrace
all things in the universe and benefit all sentient beings.
Ways to Purify
the Mind
Modern medicine is very advanced. All kinds of pharmaceuticals are
available. The variety of drugs corresponds to the numerous ailments modern people
now have which were non-existent before. There are cancers in our physical bodies,
but aren't there cancers in our minds also? Greed, anger, ignorance, arrogance
and doubt are illnesses that we cannot ignore. When we have physical disorders,
we treat them with medicines, intravenous injections and nu- tritional supplements.
There is an old Chinese saying, " Medicine can only cure symptoms of ailments.
It will not heal the real illnesses." The real illness is the illness of
the mind. As a matter of fact, many physical diseases are caused by psychological
factors. The most obvious examples are illnesses of the stomach and digestive
system. Eighty percent of these disorders are related to emotional distress. If
we can maintain a balanced and peaceful mind, many diseases will disappear.
If
we have psychological disorders, what medicines will benefit our spirit? The Buddha
is said to have created eighty-four-thousand instructions to remedy our eighty-four-thousand
tenacious maladies. For example, if we do not eradicate our greed by upholding
the precepts, our mind will follow our greed by running wild. If we do not overcome
our anger by practicing meditation, our spirit will live forever in a "flame
of fire" which makes perfect tranquility difficult to reach. Finally, the
affliction of ignorance can only be cured by wisdom, because wisdom is capable
of penetrating the darkness of ignorance, uncovering the magnificent and tranquil
state of our original mind.
In addition to the major illnesses caused by the
three poisons, and ignorance, there are all kinds of psychological sicknesses
that need to be healed, transformed, or overcome. The following are treatments
as prescribed in the Buddha's teachings:
1. A calm mind is an antidote to a
busy mind: The tempo of modern life is rather fast and compacted. Most people
suffer from distress caused by anxiety and insecurity. Therefore, in our daily
lives, it's beneficial if we have a few minutes to practice the art of self-healing
through mind calming and purification. When the "impurities" in our
mind are cleansed, insight and wisdom will emerge from calmness.
2. A benevolent
mind is an antidote to a malevolent mind: Our mind sometimes is like that of a
"sage," but at other times like that of a "troubled one,"
rambling up and down, in between the positive and the negative. When the benevolent
mind arises, everything goes well; when the malevolent mind arises, millions of
defilements result. Therefore, we have to eradicate the unwholesome mind, and
guard and keep our correct thoughts, in order to cultivate a mind of loving kindness
and compassion.
3. A trusting mind is an antidote to a doubtful mind: Many
mistakes and tragedies in the world are due to doubt and suspicion, for instance,
suspecting the betrayal of a friend, infidelity of a spouse, or ill will of a
relative. When doubt arises, it's like a restraining rope on the body, making
movement almost impossible. Treatise on the Perfection of Great Wisdom (Mahaprajnaparamita
Sastra) says, "The Buddha's teachings are as large as an ocean. Trust provides
the only means to reach it." Building trust not only allows us to realize
the truth in the Buddha's teachings, it also enables us to be more tolerant toward
others, to accept the world as it is and to strengthen our belief in the Dharma.
4. A true mind is an antidote to a deluded mind: Because of an attachment
to the notion of self, personal preference and judgments, ordinary people's minds
are constantly discriminating and deliberating, creating countless illusions and
unwarranted responses. To lead a life of truth, beauty and virtue, we have to
use our mind without discrimination and duality, perceiving things as they are
and treating all sentient beings as inherently equal.
5. An open mind is an
antidote to a narrow mind: We need to make our mind become like an ocean capable
of receiving all the water from hundreds of rivers and tributaries without changing
their characteristics. Only an all-embracing mind of gratitude and forbearance
can relieve us from a jealous and intolerant mind.
6. A balanced mind is an
antidote to a fragmented mind: If material wealth is the only thing valued in
life, we will become extremely anguished when we lose our fortune. If ordinary
love is the focal point of life, we will suffer tremendously if that love relationship
can no longer be maintained. Whenever there is grasping and clinging, there is
differentiation and bondage. How can one be free? It's better that one react to
the transient, worldly possessions and the attached illusions with an even and
equitable mind. By doing that, one will become free and unperturbed at all times
and in all occasions without any attachment or restriction.
7. An enduring
mind is an antidote to an impermanent mind: Although Buddhism maintains that all
things and phenomena, including thoughts and feelings, are impermanent and constantly
changing, it also holds that when we vow to serve others and not just ourselves,
the power of the vow and devotion is so immeasurable that it reaches beyond the
universe. The Avatamsaka Sutra says, "As soon as one invokes the bodhicitta
(the vow to attain Buddhahood), one is immediately enlightened." A Bodhisattva
who has just pledged his/her vow has a mind as pure as that of the Buddha's. However,
he/she has to maintain that momentum, without falling back, in order to attain
perfect en- lightenment.
8. A non-attached mind is an antidote to an impulsive
mind: Modern men and women fancy novelty and fads. They are curious about any
new gimmick, and thus become easy targets of bizarre and eccentric scams and frauds
perpetrated by con artists. Chan Buddhism states that, "A non-attached mind
is the path to enlightenment." Maintaining a non-attached mind in our daily
life will enable us to appreciate that, "Every day is a delightful day, every
moment is an enjoyable moment."
In addition to these eight observations,
we ought to cultivate a mind of patience, humility, thoughtfulness, filial piety,
sincerity, honesty, innocence, purity, loving-kindness, forgiveness, joyfulness,
charity, reverence, equanimity, forbearance, contrition, repentance, thankfulness,
wisdom (prajna), compassion (a trait of a Bodhisattva) and enlightenment (a trait
of a Buddha) to fully develop its boundless potential.
Buddhism's Contribution
to Modern Psychology
Western Psychologist Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) developed
the practice of psychoanalysis. He was also the first researcher who explored
the role of the human unconscious in the history of Western physics. His contribution
to psychology is analogous to Newton or Copernicus's contribution to science.
Nevertheless, the human unconscious has been the subject of detailed and sophisticated
analysis and discussion by Buddhists in the East since for over fourteen-hundred
years, as evidenced by the book "Verses on the Formulation of the Eight Consciousnesses
(by Venerable Master Xuanzang)".
Freud's work on the unconscious was further
advanced by his well known student Karl Jung (1875-1961). Jung was very knowledgeable
about Eastern philosophies and spiritual practices, such as Buddhism, Chan and
Yoga. Inspired by these teachings, Jung divided the human psyche into three levels:
conscious, individual unconscious and collective unconscious. The individual unconscious
functions like a storage of memory, amassing a person's repressed psychological
experiences and feelings. The collective unconscious, on the other hand, is the
accumulation of the deep-seated archetypes inherited by human beings over many
generations. This idea is very similar to the formulation of the "Alaya Consciousness"
in Buddhism and is an example of the influences of Buddhism on Western Psychology.
After
World War II, Humanistic Psychology developed. Advanced by Abraham Maslow (1908-
1970), it postulates that human needs can be divided into five stages. The highest
stage is "self- actualization." He borrowed concepts such as "correct
feeling" and "enlightenment" from Buddhism to interpret the ideal
state of self- actualization. He identified this state as a living experience
of spirituality and bliss, transcending time and space, object and subject. Maslow
often used the Buddhist term "Nirvana" to describe this special experience.
He also stated that the notions of "Selflessness" and "True Self
(Buddha Nature)" can assist people in attaining self-actualization and contributing
to others in society.
Another psychoanalyst, Erich Fromm (1900- 1980), had
a keen interest in and deep understanding of Chan Buddhism. He spoke highly of
Buddhism and its spiritual aspect characterized by "loving-kindness and compassion"
and "an extreme altruism of elevating all sentient beings to bliss."
He thought that altruism, in the form of sacrificing one's self for others, is
the correct "medicine" for healing sickness in Western society.
As
a branch of Humanistic Psychology, Transpersonal Psychology developed in the 1960s
and has broadened the boundary of traditional psychology by integrating Buddhist
philosophy, and other spiritual practices, with Western Psychology. It is often
thought to be "the psychology of modern wisdom and creativity." This
school of psychology investigates transpersonal psychic states, values and ideals,
meaning of life, cares for the dying, the relationship of an individual with the
whole of humankind and the relationship between an individual and nature. Meditation
is included as a way of expanding one's consciousness in order to establish an
integration of mind, body and spirit. Modern Western methodologies are used to
explain many of today's concrete psychological problems where traditional Buddhist
Psychology has often been more generalized. The scope and object of Transpersonal
Psychology is very close to the concept of "oneness and coexistence"
in Buddhism.
Dr. Victor Frankl (1905-1997), another advocate of Humanistic
Psychology, devoted his investigation to the meaning of life and what happens
at the time of one's death. He believed that human beings can create meaningful
and enjoyable lives through their own efforts by probing deeply into and understanding
life's essence. He further mentioned that when humans are confronted with death
or suffering, if they can adjust their state of mind from the negative to the
positive in reacting to these circumstances, they will experience a deeper meaning
of life which brings about clarity and dignity. He developed these ideas into
a system called Logotherapy.
Logotherapy can be said to be an extension of
the Buddhist idea that "every perception and concept is created by the mind."
The Virmalakirtinirdesa Sutra says, "If one's mind is pure, the world is
experienced as pure." Buddhism stresses daily practice and training in order
to transcend life and death. The scholars in Humanistic Psychology also turned
their attention to the relationship between the understanding of life and death
and personal spiritual liberation. In the future, it is predicted that more integration
will occur between Western psychotherapy and Eastern Buddhist practices leading
to liberation from suffering.
Although we live in a time of abundant resources
brought about by rapid economic growth and technological advances, we are extremely
lacking in spirituality. When the body and mind are squeezed and harmed by various
pressures from the external environment, and we are unable to adjust or adapt
to them, mental disorders usually result such as anxiety and depression.
Buddhist
Psychology identifies the source of all suffering. It shows us the meaning of
life and guides all sentient beings in searching the deeper powers of mind through
the elimination of greed, anger and ignorance from within. Its practice, if pursued
freely and diligently, prevents any occurrence or reoccurrence of psychological
illness. It aids people in creating both physical and mental health so they can
lead both joyful and fulfilling lives.
Since the middle of the twentieth century,
much of Western Psychology has absorbed considerable wisdom from Eastern cultures,
especially Buddhist philosophy and practices. Based on this, it can be stated
that Buddhist Psychology represents an important and comprehensive science of
mental health. By adapting to the needs of people, Buddhist Psychology, along
with other modalities, will meet the demands of our time by providing solutions
to human problems and an improvement in social well-being.
Venerable Master
Hsing Yun
Venerable Master Hsing Yun was born in Chiangsu Province, China in
1927 and entered a monastery near Nanjing at age twelve. He was fully ordained
in 1941, and is the 48th patriarch of the Linji (Rinzai) Chan School. In 1949,
amid the turbulence of civil war, he went to Taiwan.
In Taiwan, he began fulfilling
his long-held vow of promoting Humanistic Buddhism - a Buddhism that takes to
heart spiritual practice as daily life. With an emphasis on not needing to "go
some place else" to find enlightenment, we can realize our true nature in
the here and now, within this precious human birth and this world. When we actualize
altruism, joyfulness, and universality, we are practicing the fundamental concepts
of Humanistic Buddhism. When we give faith, hope, joy, and ser- vice, we are helping
all beings, as well as ourselves. For nearly a half century, Venerable Master
Hsing Yun has devoted his efforts to transforming this world through the practice
of Humanistic Buddhism.
He is the founder of the Fo Guang Shan International
Buddhist Order, which is headquartered in Taiwan and supports temples worldwide.
The Order emphasizes education and service and maintains public universities,
Buddhist colleges, libraries, publishing houses, Buddhist art galleries and tea
rooms, free mobile medical clinics, a children's home, a retirement home, a high
school, and a television station. The Order's lay service organization, Buddha's
Light International Association, also has active chapters worldwide.
Venerable
Master Hsing Yun is an outspoken pro- ponent of equality among all people and
religious traditions. The Order has the largest number of fe- male monastics of
any Buddhist order today. By providing and supporting educational and leadership
opportunities, he has worked to improve the status of women in Taiwan. He has
held full ordination ceremonies for women of the Mahayana, Theravada, and Vajrayana
traditions. In addition, he annually organizes conferences to bring together the
various Buddhist schools and to promote dialogue between Buddhists and other major
religious groups.
He is a prolific writer and has authored over one hundred
books in Chinese. His writings have been translated into English and many other
languages. His Life of Sakyamuni Buddha and the sixteen- volume Fo Guang Buddhist
Dictionary have both won Taiwan's highest humanitarian award. His biography Handing
Down the Light, Hsing Yun's Ch'an Talks, The Lion's Roar, The Hundred Sayings
Series, The Humanistic Buddhism Series, and Being Good: A Guide to Buddhist Ethics
are now available in English. His numerous lectures also continue to be translated
into English.
Based in Taiwan, Venerable Master Hsing Yun travels widely. His
insightful, engaging, and witty lectures unfailingly endear him to audiences.
He reminds us that to transform our world, we must be actively engaged in it.
"Community transcends the individual," he says, "and in doing so,
fulfills the individual in the most complete way possible." Wherever he goes,
he encourages people to unite both the local and global community into a world
of complete equality, joyfulness, and perfect peace.