Buddhism and Science
A group of over 10,000 earnest intellectuals once requested the Buddha to explain the manner and incidence of life and the Universe. This was followed by a series of daily lectures and demonstrations lasting three months. The Buddha's explanations were given to the complete satisfaction of everyone present.
It is most remarkable that when reduced to basic principles, many statements in the Buddhist scriptures are in line with modern scientific discoveries. Buddhism is scientific in that it combines objective observation, experiment and analysis in the spirit of free inquiry.
Buddhism is beyond Science as it can contribute to modern life by providing the moral and spiritual guide for the individual in our increasingly technological and materialistic age, showing us the path to True Happiness. As Einstein said, "Religion without Science is blind; Science without Religion is crippled."

YOU ARE SHOT!
In reality, the Buddha never wished to spend time on speculative (or metaphysical) issues of the Universe as they have little value for spiritual development towards True Happiness. He only taught them out of Compassion - either to bring out an underlying teaching, or to satisfy the curiosity of those who would otherwise not hear His actual Enlightenment, all speculative questions will be answered, and that we have no need to ask them now.
The Buddha compared one who keeps asking speculative questions to a man shot by a poisoned arrow, who refuses to remove it till he knows who shot it, how it was shot, from where was it shot... By the time these were answered, he would be dead. Likewise, we are "shot" by the arrow of impending death and constant dissatisfaction, and should never forget our aim of attaining Enlightenment.
MATTER
The Buddhist teaching, "Form is Emptiness; Emptiness is Form. Form is not different from Emptiness; Emptiness is not different from Form" refers to the fact that matter is neither truly solid nor ultimately different from the "emptiness" of energy, as the material can become immaterial with no "solid" core and vice versa. It is the Buddhist version of the famous law E=mc2 (E=energy, m=mass, c=speed of light). The atomic bomb is an example of how a little matter can be converted into tremendous energy. Likewise, energy can be converted to matter. Though Science has yet to discover how, the Buddha was recorded to have performed such "miraculous" feats. He did so only out of Compassion, to humble the proud, that He knew were already ready to listen to His teachings, only being hindered by pride.
MIND
The Buddha declared that the primary factor and most powerful force of the Universe is the Mind. Scientists today are seeing this Truth - realising that the Mind of a person can create reality in what is perceived. Mind energy is not yet fully understood by Science. The Buddha however, teaches us in great detail about the dynamics of the Mind. The mastery of the Mind is of the greatest importance as it is the key to True Happiness and liberation.
RELATIVITY
The Buddha, like Einstein, discovered the truth of relativity - that space and time are not absolute but relative, functioning interdependently. Space and time are experienced differently by individuals in different worlds and mindstates. The world experienced in the state of Enlightenment is the vivid awareness of the interpenetration of space and time.
TIME
The Buddha defined time as "the measurement of change." This is scientific as time is linked with the motion of matter (or energy) in space, which creates force. The concept of time is meaningless when there is no change. Time has no beginning or end in Buddhism as all things (except the state of Enlightenment) undergo constant change. There is only the present central moment of "now" that is meaningful to our existence.
SPACE
In Buddhism, space is defined as the voidness in between matter which allows motion and interaction. As it extends infinitely in all directions, any point in the Universe can be considered central. Likewise, scientists look into outer space and discover our position in the Universe to be just like any other point in space. There is no special position in the Universe as it is filled homogeneously with other world-systems. There is only the present central place of "here" that is meaningful to our existence.
ATOM
As the atom (pre-supposed to be indivisible) is recently proven to be divisible indefinitely, it is therefore not the basic unit of matter. Thus, an atom is not really an atom; it is called so for convenience. Likewise, the Buddha says that when He speaks of the "Universe" (made up of energy and atoms), He does not really mean "Universe" - He calls it so only nominally.
QUANTUM PHYSICS
Scientists discovered in quantum physics that atoms and subatomic particles do not have definite locations or "meaningful" motion, appearing random and unpredictable. This led them to conclude that the "building blocks of reality" are "imaginary ghosts". The way an observer chooses to view an experiment determines the part of the observed phenomena to be manifested. The manifested properties are nothing but intersection and interaction of the observer's Mind with the phenomena. The theory also suggests that reality is not merely constructed by the Mind of the observer, but that there are countless realities constructed by countless Mind - each equally real or equally unreal. They may be very much resemble each other, or be virtually opposite in nature.
Likewise, in Buddhism, it is the Mind that constructs the indeterminate nature of the manifestation of ultimate reality in a particular way. Given particular conditions, the Mind constructs reality in a determinate way, generally in terms of existence or non-existence and more specifically in the form of the six realms of existence or the thirty-one planes of existence.
INTERDEPENDENCE
The constituents of the material and mental Universe interact with one another and are inseparable such that nothing (no single thing) exists individually, each being equally important. The Buddha taught this as the interdependent origination of all phenomena.
CHANGE
The existence of any object is an illusion as the Universe is simply a complex process of unceasing interconnected activities in which nothing moves independently of the others. The Buddha taught this as the constant fluctuation and transient nature of all conditioned things - even to the level of minuest atomic matter.
MICROORGANISMS
The Buddha once held up a cup and remarked that there were 84,000 (a number to denote "many" or "countless") beings in it. No one understood what He meant. Today, we use a microscope and see that He referred to invisible microorganisms.
EVOLUTION OF THE UNIVERSE
The Buddha taught that the Universe undergoes two major periods of change that repeat endlessly - expansion and contraction. This is like the model of the Oscillating Universe, which says that the Universe began with a Big Bang, when all explodes and expands, forming galaxies. When the force of expansion is depleted, the Universe closes in on itself through gravity with a Big Crunch, before expanding once more. Thus, it is likely that there have been, and will be, infinite Universes. The evolution of the Universe is a closed cycle - not unlike the water cycle where water evaporates to form clouds before falling as rain and evaporating again. Thus, the existence of water (and all other phenomena) does not require a creator as it is a natural self-contained process.
UNIVERSE STRUCTURE
According to the Buddha, the Universe exists in tiers, the smallest being the Thousand-fold Minor World System - this describes a galaxy (eg. the Milky Way), which contains millions of stars and planets. The next tier is called a Twice-a-Thousand Middling World System - this describes galactic clusters (eg. Coma Berenices). The Middling World System consists of up to a hundred or thousand galactic clusters. Next is the Major World System, formed by clusters of Middling World Systems - this describes a Metagalaxy (eg.the Big Dipper that "frames" at least a million galaxies). Though this is the farthest that modern scientific instruments can observe only recently, the Buddha taught this cosmic view long before the invention of the telescope.
GALAXIES
The Buddhist scriptures described that there are "worlds shaped like flowers" - this corresponds to billowy intergalactic gas clouds (that contain billions of stars) observed by radio-telescopes. "Some are vast as the ocean, spinning like a turning wheel. Some are slender (eg. galaxies observable in Cetus, Pegasus and Hercules). Some are small. For they have countless forms. (Galaxies have countless shapes.) And they spin in various ways (Galaxies revolve around their nuclei.)... Some worlds are like a glowing wheel (Some galaxies have strong luminosity)."
QUASARS
Some world systems (galaxies) are described in the Buddhist scriptures to erupt violently like volcanoes. This corresponds to quasars that actively explode, ejecting incredible amounts of matter from the nuclei of galaxies.
BLACK HOLES
Some cosmic worlds are described in the Buddhist scriptures to be like the "Lion's mouth" which eat everything - this corresponds to Black Holes that devour everything within its gravitational reach.
PLANETS
The Buddhist scriptures describe that, "Many world-systems are full of rock-torn earth - dangerous and destroying." While this may be true of planets of other star-systems, it is proven for our Solar System's planets such as Mars and Venus. The Earth was also described to have formed out of a mass of heavy thick matter that gradually hardened to solidify - this is agreed by Science.
EVOLUTION
The Buddha's teaching agree with Darwin's theory of Evolution and Natural Selection to a certain extent. It teaches that all sentient beings, by their instinctal will to survive, continuously evolve either into higher (and more intelligent) life forms or "de-evolve" into lower life forms (through the force of Karma - in a single life or through rebirth). This carries on indefinitely till one attains the highest state of evolution, becoming a Buddha - having fully evolved both mentally and physically.
The Buddha's account of how life arose and developed in out world is startlingly similar to parts of the theory of evolution as proposed by Charles Darwin. In the Aganna Sutta, the Buddha relates the becoming and re-becoming of the Universe over a period of countless millions of years in relation to the evolution of Human Beings, the arising of good and evil in society, and how such a society progressed. The Buddha also taught on how the first life formed on the surface of the water of the Earth, and again, over countless millions of years, evolved from simple to complex organisms. All these processes are without beginning or end, and are set in motion by natural causes. In the Brahmajala Sutra, it is also recorded on how the previous Universe ended and stabilised, re-evolved and restabilised with the appearance of the beings of the different planes of existence.
ENERGY
Buddhism believes in the indestructibility or preservation of energy. This is in line with the law of conservation of energy, which states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it can only be transformed from one form to another. The teaching of rebirth, is an example of the transfer of imperishable Mind or mental energy from one body into another.
ALIENS
The Buddha described worlds beyond ours in the vastness of outer space and other dimensions which are inhabited by many other intelligent sentient life forms, many of which are not unlike ours. The possible existence of extra-terrestrial life is highly agreeable among scientists today.
CAUSALITY
The Buddha taught that all physical and mental phenomena are brought about by the combination of causes and conditions. The law of Karma (the Buddhist law of cause and effect) is equivalent to the law of causality (causation) in Science. It is the belief that there is a cause for every single thing (effect) that occurs or exists. With the right conditions, every effect can in turn be the cause of another effect. There are no unexplainable, random or supernatural phenomena in Buddhism. The supernatural is only nature yet understood by the unenlightened.
PSYCHOLOGY
The Buddha was the first to look in depth into the human psyche and its experience. His teaching is a radical cure for mental dissatisfaction. The West is discovering that modern psychology is but a recent extension of Buddhism. Buddhist meditation undeniably offers the most timeless yet advanced methods for self-healing and psycho-therapy.
PSYCHIC POWERS
E.S.P. (Extra Sensory Perception), telekinesis and other such phenomena are explained by the Buddha as psychic powers are achievable by anyone who trains to concentrate and focus the Mind (this is "Mind over matter"). As the Mind is the most powerful force in the Universe, mastery of the Mind opens the gates to unlimited power. The Buddha Himself was fully capable of psychic powers as He had mastered His Mind perfectly. However, knowing that psychic powers do not bring "sideshows" to inspire faith, being secondary to His teachings.
ELECTRON
In the words of the famous American physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer, "If we ask, for instance, whether the position of the electron remains the same, we must say 'no'; if we ask whether the electron's position changes with time, we must say 'no'. The Buddha has given such answers when interrogated as to the conditions of a man's self after his death..."

*************************************************************************************************************

A Bodhisattva's Right Attitude Toward Other Bodhisattvas
A Dharma Talk by Ryuei
July 2003

Good morning. Today I would like to share with a page from the Perfection of Wisdom in 8,000 Lines. This page has become important to me because I ran across it at exactly the right time when I needed to reflect on my own attitudes and ways of interacting with others, especially other Buddhists. Let's read this together and then discuss it.
"I have, Ananda, demonstrated a dharma which includes the possibility of escape, - for persons of the Disciple-vehicle, for persons of the Pratyekabuddha-vehicle, for persons of the Bodhisattva-vehicle. As to the person who belongs to the vehicle of the Bodhisattvas and has quarreled with someone else who belongs to the vehicle of the Bodhisattvas, - if he does not confess his fault, does not promise restraint in future, harbors a latent bias towards hate, and dwells tied to that bias, - of that person I do not teach the escape [i.e. from the consequences of his action], but he is definitely condemned to go on putting on the armor [which enables him to struggle against it] for all that length of time. But I teach his escape if he confesses his fault, promises restraint in future, and reflects as follows: "I whose duty it is to drive away, to pacify and appease the quarrels, disputes and conflicts of all beings, yet I myself engage in disputes! It is indeed a loss to me, and not a gain, that I should answer back as I am spoken to. When I should be to all beings a bridge across the sea of birth-and-death, I nevertheless say to another, 'the same to you,' or return a harsh and rough answer. This is not the way in which I should speak. In fights, quarrels and disputes I should not behave like a senseless idiot, or like a dumb sheep. When I hear someone using offensive, abusive, insulting words towards me, my heart should not cherish malice for others. It is not meet and proper for me to perceive the faults of others, or to think that what is being said about the faults of others is worth listening to. For I, since I am earnestly intent [on full enlightenment], should not do harm to others. When I should make all beings happy by giving them everything that brings happiness, when I should lead them to Nirvana after having won full enlightenment, - yet nevertheless I bear ill will! I should not bear ill will even against those those who have offended against me, and I must avoid getting into a rage, and I must make a firm effort in that direction. Even when my life is in danger I must not get into a rage, and no frown should appear on my face." Of such a Bodhisattva I teach the escape. This is the attitude which a Bodhisattva should adopt also towards persons who belong to the vehicle of the Disciples. Never to get angry with any being, that is the attitude of mind one should adopt towards all beings. What attitude then should a Bodhisattva have towards other persons belonging to the vehicle of the Bodhisattvas? The same as towards the Teacher. He should have the attitude that "these bodhisattvas are my teachers." Surely, they have mounted on the same vehicle as I, have ascended by the same path, are of like intention with me, have set out in the same vehicle as I. Wherein should they be trained, that is the method by which I should be trained. But if some of them dwell in a dwelling contaminated [by the ideas of Disciples and Pratyekabuddhas], then I should not do likewise. If, however, they dwell in an uncontaminated dwelling, in mental activities associated with all-knowledge, then I also should train as they do. No obstacles to full enlightenment can arise to a Bodhisattva who trains himself in this way in all-knowledge, and he quickly knows enlightenment."
(The Perfection of Wisdom in 8,000 Lines pp. 247-8)
Originally, this page jumped out at me in my readings of the Perfection of Wisdom because it seemed so familiar, especially the phrase "the same to you." How often have I felt the very same feelings, or used those words or something like it myself. It is very difficult to avoid sometimes, especially when we feel that we are justified, that we have been wronged, or that we have been patient far too long. But it is easy to read passages like this or the story of Bodhisattva Never Despise in the Lotus Sutra - the Bodhisattva who greeted all people with respect even when he was abused in return - it is another thing to actually be able to live in accord with these teachings.
Of course this is where the practice of Odaimoku comes in. The practice of Odaimoku allows us to step back from our situation. We move away from our sense of being wronged and our self-justifications of our own intentions, words, and actions. Instead, we put these aside and center ourselves back on the Dharma through our practice. In this way we can begin to cool down and get a more objective view. This may not be automatic. It may take a lot of chanting to get some emotional distance from the problems we are having with others. But I have found that it does work. Of course, when you get back into the situation new things may be said or new aggravations may arise, and so one must go back again and again to the Odaimoku.
Through chanting and reflection however I have learned a few things. One is that one must be very careful not to attribute motives to others. One may feel that others have it in for you, or that they are being condescending or that they are trying to put you down and get others to pick sides against you. But this may just be one's own fear and projection. And even if it is not, to retaliate and harbor resentment only adds fuel to the fire. Sometimes the best thing to do is to just let people be who they are. And as the passage says, act dumb. In other words, reserve judgement and try not to take things personally. In the end, our ego, the very one that is hurt and which we are trying to defend, is a much worse enemy than anyone else. Others may or may not be out to get us, but our ego will trip us up every time if we don't keep a careful watch on it. What I have found is that if we can set the ego aside, most problems can be seen to arise from misunderstandings and/or impatience.
In the end, I am discovering that giving others the benefit of the doubt and taking the time to really listen and understand what the other person is saying can be invaluable. Even if you do not agree at least take the time to hear them out so that you can discover why they think or feel a certain way. Sometimes a seemingly sharp disagreement can disappear altogether when one does this - as one sees that the other person is using words differently than you might, or that a further explanation will clarify where they are coming from and enable you to see something you might have missed. So in the end, I am trying to take this passage to heart through Odaimoku and the practice of patient and active listening.

Copyright by Ryuei Michael McCormick. 2003.

*************************************************************************************************************

Alayavijnana - Store Consciousness
By Venerable Dr.Walpola Rahula

In the Yogacara (Vijnanavada) School of Buddhism, alayavijnana is one of the most important doctrines developed by Asanga (fourth century A.C.). He divides the vijnanaskandha (Aggregate of Conciousness) the fifth of the five skandhas, into three different aspects or layers, namely, citta, manas and vijnana. In the Theravada Tipitaka as well as in the Pali Commentaries, these three terms - citta, manas, vijnana - are considered as synonyms denoting the same thing. The Sarvistivada also takes them as synonyms. Even the Lankavatarasutra, which is purely a Mahayana text, calls them synonyms although their separate functions are mentioned elsewhere in the same sutra. Vasubandhu, too, in his Vimsatikavijnapti-matratasiddhi considers them as synonyms. Since any one of these three terms - citta, manas, vijnanas - represents some aspect, even though not all aspects, of the fifth Aggregate vijnanaskandha, they may roughly be considered as synonyms.
However, for Asanga, citta, manas and vijnana are three different and distinct aspects of the vyjnanaskandha. He defines this Aggregate as follows:
'What is the definition of the Aggregate of Consciousness (vijnanaskandha)? It is mind (citta), mental organ (manas) and also consciousness (vijnana).
"And there what is mind (citta)? It is alayavijnana (Store-Consciousness) containing all seeds (sarvabijaka), impregnated with the traces (impressions) (vasanaparibhavita) of Aggregates (skandha), Elements (dhatu) and Spheres (ayatana) . . .
'What is mental organ (manas)? It is the object of alayavijnana always having the nature of self-notion (self-conceit) (manyanatmaka) associated with four defilements, viz. the false idea of self (atmadrsti), self-love (atmasneha), the conceit of 'I am' (asmimana) and ignorance (avidya) ...
'What is consciousness (vijnana)? It consists of the six groups of consciousness (sad vijnanakayah), viz. visual consciousness (caksurvijnana), auditory (srotra), olfactory (ghrana), gustatory (jihva), tactile (kaya), and mental consciousness (manovijnana)
Thus we can see that vijnana represents the simple reaction or response of the sense-organs when they come in contact with external objects. This is the uppermost or superficial aspect or layer of the vijnanaskandha. Manas represents the aspect of its mental functioning, thinking, reasoning, conceiving ideas, etc. Citta, which is here called alayavijnana, represents the deepest, finest and subtlest aspect or layer of the Aggregate of Consciousness. It contains all the traces or impressions of the past actions and all good and bad future potentialities. The Sandhinirmocana-sutra also says that alayavijnana is called citta (Tibetan sems).
It is generally believed that alayavijnana is purely a Mahayana doctrine and that nothing about it is found in Hinayana. But in the Mahayanasangraha Asanga himself says that in the Sravakayana (= Hinayana) it is mentioned by synonyms (paryaya) and refers to a passage in the Ekottaragama which reads: 'People (praja) like the alaya (alayarata), are fond of the alaya (alayarama), are delighted in the alaya (alayasammudita), are attached to the alaya (alayabhirata). When the Dharma is preached for the destruction of the alaya, they wish to listen (susrusanti) and lend their ears (srotram avadadhanti), they put forth a will for the perfect knowledge (ajnacittam upasthapayanti) and follow the path of Truth (dharmanudharma-pratipanna). When the Tathagata appears in the world (pradurbhava), this marvellous (ascarya) and extraordinary (adbhuta) Dharma appears in the world.'
Lamotte identifies this Ekottaragama passage with the following passage in the Pali Anguttaranikaya (A II, p.131): Alayarama bhikkhave paja alayarata alayasammudita, sa Tathagatena analaye dhamme desiyamane sussuyati sotam odahati annacittam upattapeti. Tathagatassa bhikkhave arahato sammasambuddhassa patubhava ayam pathamo acchariyo abbhuto dhammo patubhavati.
Besides this Anguttara passage, the term alaya in the same sense is found in several other places of the Pali Canon. The Pali Commentaries explain this term as 'attachment to the five sense-pleasures", and do not go deeper than that. But this also is an aspect of the alayavijnana.
In the Lankavatarasutra the term tathagatagarbha is used as a synonym for alayavijnana and is described as 'luminous by nature' (prakrtiprabhasvara) and 'pure by nature' (prakrtiparisuddha) but appearing as impure 'because it is sullied by adventitious defilements' (agantuklesopaklistataya). In the Anguttaranikaya, citta is described as 'luminous' (pabhassara), but it is 'sullied by adventitious minor defilements' (agantukehi upakkilesehi upakkilittham). One may notice here that alaya-vijnana (or tathagatgarbha) and citta are described almost by the same terms. We have seen earlier that the Sandhi-nirmocana-sutra says that alayavijnana is also called citta. Asanga too mentions that it is named citta.
It is this alayavijnana or citta that is considered by men as their "Soul', 'Self', 'Ego' or Atman. It should be remembered as a concrete example, that Sati, one of the Buddha's disciples, took vinnan (vijnana) in this sense and that the Buddha reprimanded him for this wrong view.
The attainment of Nirvana is achieved by 'the revolution of alayavijnana' which is called asrayaparavrtti. The same idea is conveyed by the expression alayasamugghata 'uprooting of alaya' which is used in the Pali Canon as a synonym for Nirvana. Here it should be remembered, too, that analaya 'no-alaya' is another synonym for Nirvana.
The alayavijnanaparavrtti is sometimes called bijaparavrtti 'revolution of the seeds' as well. Bija here signifies the 'seeds' of defilements (samklesikadharmabija) which cause the continuity of samsara. By the 'revolution of these seeds' one attains Nirvana. Again the Pali term khinabija, which is used to denote an arahant whose seeds of defilements are destroyed', expresses the same idea.
Thus one may see that, although not developed as in the Mahayana, the original idea of alayavijnana was already there in the Pali Canon of the Theravada.

*************************************************************************************************************

An Introduction to Buddhism for Health Professionals
By Graeme Lyall

In the year 563B.C. on the border of modern day Nepal and India, a son was born to a chieftain of the Sakya clan. His name was Siddhartha Gotama and at the age of thirty-five, he attained, after six years of struggle and through his own insight, full enlightenment or Buddhahood. The term 'Buddha' is not a name of a god or an incarnation of a god, despite later Hindu claims to the contrary, but is a title for one who has realised through good conduct, mental cultivation, and wisdom the cause of life's vicissitudes and the way to overcome them. Buddhism is perhaps. unique amongst the world's religions in that it does not place reliance for salvation on some external power, such as a god or even a Buddha, but places the responsibility for life's frustrations squarely on the individual.
The Buddha said:
By oneself, indeed, is evil done; By oneself is one defiled.
By oneself is evil left undone; By oneself indeed is one purified.
Purity and impurity depend on oneself. No one purifies another.
His teaching can be summarised as:
Not to do any evil,
To cultivate good,
To purify one's mind,
This is the Teaching of the Buddhas. To many people of other faiths the term 'Buddha' conjures up ideas of idol worship and concepts, such as, that Buddhists are atheists, such concepts being an anathema to the followers 'of the, so called 'religions of the book'. Buddhism, certainly, is very different from the Semitic religions, but it may surprise many of its critics to know that the Buddha condemned idolatry. When, just prior to his passing away, he was asked how he could be remembered he replied that those who practised his teachings would remember him best. Prior to the arrival on the Indian sub-continent of the Bactrian-Greeks, Buddha images were unknown. The Buddha foresaw that worship of him in any form would result in his deification with its consequent emphasis on seeking salvation from an external power rather than identifying Nirvana, the eradication of greed anger and delusion, as being solely within one's own power. Indeed, he was right. For many ethnic Buddhists, he is a God from whom they ask favours. However, Buddhists feel uncomfortable in acknowledging a Creator of the world. Buddhists do accept that there is a transcendental state possible of realisation by each and every one of us. We certainly do not accept the concept of an anthropomorphic god but many Christians, Jews and Muslims would join us in such a rejection. Buddhists, generally, are uncomfortable in using the term "God", because there is no clear definition of to what such a term refers. Indeed, an anthropomorphic view of God would be considered by Jews and Muslims to be idolatrous. If, as is the case with many modern theologians, one holds the Tillichian view that God is the "Ground of Being" - the very fact of existence - then no Buddhist could argue with this. However, a Buddhist would be hesitant in using the term 'God'. To a Christian, a Jew and a Muslim, this may be termed 'God', whereas a Buddhist would use the term 'Nirvana'. I feel that we are talking about a similar concept. Like most major religions, as time passed since the death of its founder, different sects or schools of thought arose however the essential teachings of the Buddha are accepted as pivotal to all schools of Buddhism. They differ mainly on the emphasis that they place on certain aspects of the teaching and in their interpretation of the monastic rules governing the conduct of the clergy known as the Sangha. The Theravada school, that followed by Buddhists from such countries as Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Laos and Cambodia, claims to adhere strictly to the original teachings of the Buddha as contained in the Pali scriptures and it emphasises the goal of personal salvation for the individual follower. The Sangha of the Theravada is expected to observe to the letter the 227 rules laid down in a collection of books called the Vinaya, which includes such rules as eating only prior to midday and refraining from handling money. Four of these 227 rules, if broken, entail expulsion of the transgressor from the monastic order. They are: killing a human being, sexual intercourse, stealing and falsely claiming supernormal powers. Should a Buddhist monk of the Theravadin tradition come under your care, it could create a problem. Theravadin monks are not supposed to make any physical contact with a member of the opposite sex. This means that, preferably, male nurses should be used where possible when caring for these monks. The Mahayana school, followed mainly in China, Korea, Japan and Vietnam, is less rigid in its interpretation of the Teachings and emphasises the importance of the follower's becoming a Buddha for the salvation of all living beings. The Mahayana Sangha observes strict vegetarianism, unlike the Theravada where vegetarianism is optional, but Mahayana monks will eat in the evening. The post-midday meals are regarded as medicine. Some Mahayana sects, notably in Korea and Japan, admit married priests. The Vajrayana school, followed in Tibet and Mongolia and attracting many Western followers, is essentially the same in its interpretation of the Teachings as the Mahayana but it stresses the importance of the acceptance of a personal teacher who initiates his followers into, so-called, secret teachings known as Tantra. Neither the Theravada nor the mainstream Mahayana schools accept that there are such things as 'secret teachings' in Buddhism. The central teaching of all schools of Buddhism is grounded in the "Four Noble Truths". The first truth is that life is subject to Dukkha. Dukkha is often translated as 'suffering' but it is much more than that. It certainly means physical and mental suffering but it also means that life is full of frustrations - we would always prefer things to be other than the way they are. As we grow old, we wish we could remain young. If we are poor, we wish we could be rich. When we are separated from our friends and loved ones, we are saddened. Dukkha is birth sickness, old age, pain and despair, separation from those whom we like and association with those whom we dislike. All of these are examples of Dukkha and that is the First Noble Truth. The Second Noble Truth states that the Cause of Dukkha can be attributed to three things - greed, anger and a deluded mind. We tend to be attached to people and material things and when we are separated from them, we suffer regret. We cling to these things as if they will last forever and we find it hard to accept the fact that they don't. We get angry or have aversions to those things that we do not like. Buddhism teaches that anger harms the one who is angry more than the object to which this anger is directed. Anger causes heating of the blood and an unpleasant appearance. The more we get angry with someone and they react to our anger the more this anger increases. Anger is unproductive - it doesn't solve the problem. Our minds are deluded because we do not see things as they really are - that is, subject to impermanence, frustrating and devoid of a permanent self or substance. Everything, material or immaterial, is subject to change or impermanence. Perhaps you are sitting comfortably in your chair listening to me. If you remain in that chair for the next three hours, without moving, do you still think you could regard the chair as comfortable? Believe me, I do not intend to keep you here for the next three hours. If you remained fixed in that chair for a month, you would probably find that you are crippled and unable to move. Instead of being a health carer, you will probably become a patient. If you remain in that chair for a hundred years, you will probably be a skeleton and the chair will be fairly seedy too. Professor Lewis Lancaster, from UCLA, relates that, when visiting Australia, and getting on the aircraft in Los Angeles he was sitting in a very comfortable seat. After sixteen hours non-stop flight he realised the truth of impermanence. He could not wait to get away from that seat. What starts as being regarded as 'comfortable' can soon change to being uncomfortable. Everything is relative. The way we see things depends on the time, place and current situation. We, ourselves, are subject to this change. Every cell in our body is constantly ageing and dying and being replaced. Our thoughts and ideas are constantly changing or being modified. Your thoughts and ideas, since you came to this chapel, are different. They have changed considerably. Is there anything in you which is not subject to change? This is why Buddhists say, in the ultimate sense, there is no 'you' or unchanging self entity. This change and this "no self' is difficult to accept and is, therefore, Dukkha. The third Noble Truth concerns the overcoming of Dukkha, that is, overcoming the greed anger and delusion that are the source of Dukkha. Accepting change as a characteristic of life and not becoming angry or frustrated about it is part of the way to overcoming Dukkha. The overcoming of Dukkha is termed "Nirvana". Nirvana is not a place but a state of mind - a mind that sees things as they really are and not clouded by delusion. The Fourth Noble Truth is the method taught by the Buddha for attaining the state of Nirvana. It is known as the Noble Eightfold Path. You may be wondering why the term 'Noble' is used for the Path. One who walks the Path is considered to be a noble person. The eight steps of the Path are: Right Understanding, that is knowledge that the Four Noble Truths lead to the overcoming of Dukkha. It does not imply a total understanding of these Truths but a confidence that, by following the Path, the result will be attained. Right Thought is to be constantly aware of one's thoughts and actions and thereby avoid harm to any living creature. Right Speech is awareness of one's speech so that, what one says, is beneficial to the hearer. Right Action is to be aware of one's actions and observe the five precepts so that one does not cause harm to oneself or any other living creature. The five precepts are: To undertake the training to avoid taking the life of beings. This precept applies to all living beings not just to humans. All beings have a right to their lives and that right should be respected. This would include the unborn, so abortion is not an acceptable alternative for controlling the population, however, contraception is not an issue as far as Buddhists are concerned. Its corollary is to protect and respect the life of all beings. To undertake the training to avoid taking things not given. This precept goes further than mere stealing. One should avoid taking anything unless one can be sure that is intended for you. Its corollary is to cultivate generosity. This has the added bonus of eradicating attachment. To undertake the training to avoid sensual misconduct. This precept is often mistranslated or misinterpreted as relating only to sexual misconduct but it covers any overindulgence in any sensual pleasure such as gluttony as well as misconduct of a sexual nature. A Buddhist should be mindful of the possible effects on themselves and on others of improper sexual activity. This precept would include adultery because this also breaches the precept of not taking what is not freely given. A relationship with someone who is committed to another is stealing. Similarly in cases of rape and child abuse, one is stealing the dignity and self respect of another. One is also the cause of mental pain, not to mention physical pain so one is causing harm to another living being. Therefore, such behavior is breaking several precepts. Its corollary is to respect the dignity and rights of all beings - to treat each female as your own sister or mother and each male as your brother or father. To undertake the training to refrain from false speech. As well as avoiding lying and deceiving, this precept covers slander as well as speech which is not beneficial to the welfare of others. Its corollary is to become trustworthy and considerate. To undertake the training to abstain from substances which cause intoxication and heedlessness. This precept is in a special category as it does not infer any intrinsic evil in, say, alcohol itself, but indulgence in such a substance could be the cause of breaking the other four precepts. Its corollary is to develop clear thinking and an alert mind. These are the basic precepts expected as a day to day training of any lay Buddhist. Right Livelihood is to earn one's living in a way that does not cause harm or suffering. Such occupations as the selling of intoxicants, firearms or animals for slaughter would be considered inappropriate for Buddhists. Right Effort is the avoiding of evil which has not already arisen, rejecting evil which has already arisen, the acquiring of wholesome things which have not yet been acquired and the stabilising of those wholesome characteristics that have already been acquired. Right Mindfulness is training in constant awareness of the effects of one's actions, whether of body, speech or mind, and thus avoiding harmful actions. Right Concentration is cultivating the mind through concentration and meditation so that one attains intuitive insight or highest wisdom. Most Buddhists believe that, upon the dissolution of the body, rebirth may take place in a state consistent with the qualities of the consciousness energy, or resultant of past actions, known as karma, at the time of death. This rebirth may occur in human form, animal form, as a ghost, in a blissful state or in a woeful state. Each of these states is impermanent and lasts as long as the karmic energy, which was the cause of that rebirth, sustains it. In other words, we are subject to a constant round of rebirths until Nirvana, or the release from rebirth is attained. The Theravada tradition believes that rebirth is instantaneous upon the death of the individual, whereas the Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions believe in an intermediate state, known as antarabhava, which can last until the right conditions for rebirth prevail. What is more important for the dying patient than ceremonies after death, is the care received in the days leading up to their passing. Every effort should be made to direct their thoughts to the positive aspects of their lives. This is where a visit from a member of the Buddhist clergy can be beneficial., however chaplains and nursing staff, being aware of the importance of positive thoughts, can also be helpful in this regard. Buddhists believe that the final thoughts of a being are crucial in determining their state of rebirth. With patients from a Chinese background, it is common for a group of lay Buddhists to visit and chant the name of the Buddha of Infinite Light, Amitabha. The Amitabha Buddhist Association in New South Wales provides such a service. Another useful device is the chanting machine which can be placed close to the patient so that they are constantly aware of the name of Buddha Amitabha. I have used this with a patient in a coma by placing the machine under their pillow so that, should they regain consciousness, this will be the first thing that they hear. Hearing this chant can contribute to relieving the patient's anxiety and also direct their thoughts positively. It is very important to be aware of the ethnic background of the patient. This chanting has relevance only to patients of Chinese background. For patients from other ethnic groups, it is advisable to contact the appropriate Buddhist clergy. Following the death of a patient, from the Theravadin or Southern School, rebirth occurs at the instant of death. The clergy can comfort the family and arrange to attend the funeral for blessing chanting. Many Theravadins will willingly offer the body of the deceased for organ transplants. This is due to the belief that the energy of the deceased has completely passed on and the body serves no further purpose for the deceased. However, the position concerning the Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions is quite different. As I have alredy mentioned, they accept an intermediate or limbo state before rebirth takes place. Preferably, they prefer that the body not be touched for forty eight hours following the death. It is held that the consciousness energy may not leave the body until this time period has passed. This may seem impractical in a hospital situation but touching or moving the body during this critical period is a cause of much concern, especially to the immediate family. The majority of Mahayana Buddhists would, therefore, prefer that their relatives pass away at home. Three conditions are necessary for conception in the womb of either a human or animal to occur, that is, male sperm, female ovum and the karmic energy that has passed over from the previous incarnation. Karma is not a reward or punishment for past actions but rather a natural result or outcome of them. Buddhists do not accept the concept of a creator god who sits in judgement on his creation. We are our own creator by our past actions. The Law of Karma states "We are what we have done and we will be what we are now doing". On a popular level as taught in institutionalised Buddhism, whenever misfortune or happiness befalls us, it is due to our past karma. This tends to imply a punisher or rewarder, in other words a judging god, an idea which Buddhists reject. That is why many modern Buddhist scholars interpret Karma as a psychological phenomenon. Bad actions cause remorse, regrets and feelings of guilt which disturb our peace of mind, whereas good actions bring joy and happiness and peace of mind. Buddhists of all schools regularly perform the action of 'Taking Refuge'. A refuge is a shelter or safe haven and similarly, in Buddhism, taking refuge is considered to be a protection. The refuges are:- The Buddha - the teacher, is referred to in the scriptures as "Teacher of gods and men". The Dharma - his teaching. Before the Buddha passed away, he told Ananda, his chief disciple, that after his passing, the Dharma would be the teacher. The Sangha - is the community of followers. More specifically, it refers to those who have left home to follow the spiritual life, the Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunis or Buddhist clergy. In the broader sense, it includes those who are following his teachings whether they be monastic or lay. The initial recitation of the "Three Refuges", before a member of the monastic Sangha, constitutes formally becoming a Buddhist. In the Tibetan tradition, an additional refuge is added, that of taking refuge in the teacher, who initiates the student. Another important devotional practice is the recitation of the five precepts, known as the 'Panca Sila'. These are training rules and, unlike, say, the Ten Commandments in Christianity, they are not based on fear and feelings of guilt. A Buddhist should undertake training to try to observe these precepts but, if a precept should be broken, one should analyse one's action and try to avoid breaking it in the future. This is not to suggest that the consequences of this unwholesome action or Karma will be avoided - the admonition in the Christian Bible, "as ye sow, so shall ye also reap" applies to Buddhists as well as to Christians. The emphasis in Buddhism is to train one's self-awareness of one's actions and their effects on both one's self and others and to avoid unwholesome actions and cultivate beneficial ones. Other important devotional practices are the chanting of sutras or sermons of the Buddha or other great Buddhist teachers, prostrations before a Buddha image, and, most importantly, practising meditation. The chanting of sutras is often, mistakenly, referred to as Buddhist prayers. Buddhists do not pray to a god, however, Buddhists from the Mahayana tradition will sometimes pray to Bodhisattvas for assistance and blessings. Prostrations are considered a means of paying respect to the teacher in a similar way to people respecting those who have passed away by placing flowers on a grave. Prostrations also are a means of cultivating humility. The Buddha condemned 'rites and rituals' as being useless and not conducive to salvation. The practice of prostrating before images is more a part of institutionalised Buddhism rather than being a part of the Teaching itself. Meditation is a central part of Buddhist practice. In the Theravadin tradition, two forms of meditation, calm or Samatha and insight or Vipassana are recognised as essential practice in achieving spiritual progress. Calming the mind is achieved by concentration on a specific object and excluding all extraneous thoughts. Often, the breath or the movement of the diaphragm is used as a suitable object for concentration. At other times meditation beads or even counting the breaths are used to fix the mind during this preliminary practice. Once the mind has been trained in concentration, the meditator can then reflect on the feelings and sensations of the body, noting them as they arise and pass away. This latter practice is known as Vipassana and is the means of cultivating insight or mindfulness.
In the Cha'n or Zen tradition, two techniques are employed. One method is to concentrate on the breath and then try to clear the mind of all thoughts whatsoever. This method eliminates the constant chatter of the mind and results in an awakening. Another Cha'an technique is to ponder a question which has no rational answer. Typical koans are, "what was your face before you were born?" "what is the sound of one hand clapping?" or the word "Mu". These techniques are aimed at pushing the mind beyond rational thought in order to experience the ultimate awakening. A technique used by the Pure Land Sect of the Mahayana is to constantly recite the name of the Buddha of infinite light, Amitabha Buddha called Omi t'o-Fo in Chinese. This, again, is a means of fixing the mind on one object and not dissimilar to repetitions of prayers used by many Christians or mantras used by Tibetan Buddhists. The result is a calmed mind, and, according to Pure Land Buddhism, rebirth in the Pure Land where enlightenment may be attained by listening to the teaching of Buddha Amitabha. It should be noted that the Pure Land is not some form of heaven. When the mind is pure, one is already in the Pure Land. Likewise with Amitabha Buddha. All Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, being the essence of an awakened mind, are a constituent of mind. Before I conclude, I should mention diet. Most Buddhists do not observe any dietary restrictions apart from those strictly following the Mahayana tradition. The eating of meat or fish is not acceptable to strict Mahayana followers. Usually, they also avoid eating food prepared with onions or garlic which, it is believed, arouse the senses.
The foregoing is by no means a comprehensive introduction to the teachings of the Buddha and such a short introduction can hardly do the teaching justice, however I hope that it gives you a better understanding of those patients in your care who claim Buddhism as their religious faith.

*************************************************************************************************************

An Overview of Buddhism
by Mike Butler

This short essay is intended to give a brief introduction to Buddhism. It will discuss the way Buddhists perceive the world, the four main teachings of the Buddha, the Buddhist view of the self, the relationship between this self and the various ways in which it responds to the world, the Buddhist path and the final goal.
The Three Marks of Existence
Buddhism has been described as a very pragmatic religion. It does not indulge in metaphysical speculation about first causes; there is no theology, no worship of a deity or deification of the Buddha. Buddhism takes a very straightforward look at our human condition; nothing is based on wishful thinking, at all. Everything that the Buddha taught was based on his own observation of the way things are. Everything that he taught can be verified by our own observation of the way things are.
If we look at our life, very simply, in a straightforward way, we see that it is marked with frustration and pain. This is because we attempt to secure our relationship with the "world out there", by solidifying our experiences in some concrete way. For example, we might have dinner with someone we admire very much, everything goes just right, and when we get home later we begin to fantasise about all the things we can do with our new-found friend, places we can go etc. We are going through the process of trying to cement our relationship. Perhaps, the next time we see our friend, she/he has a headache and is curt with us; we feel snubbed, hurt, all our plans go out the window. The problem is that the "world out there" is constantly changing, everything is impermanent and it is impossible to make a permanent relationship with anything, at all.
If we examine the notion of impermanence closely and honestly, we see that it is all-pervading, everything is marked by impermanence. We might posit an eternal consciousness principle, or higher self, but if we examine our consciousness closely we see that it is made up of temporary mental processes and events. We see that our "higher self" is speculative at best and imaginary to begin with. We have invented the idea to secure ourselves, to cement our relationship, once again. Because of this we feel uneasy and anxious, even at the best of times. It is only when we completely abandon clinging that we feel any relief from our queasiness.
These three things: pain, impermanence and egolessness are known as the three marks of existence.
The Four Noble Truths
The first sermon that the Buddha preached after his enlightenment was about the four noble truths. The first noble truth is that life is frustrating and painful. In fact, if we are honest with ourselves, there are times when it is downright miserable. Things may be fine with us, at the moment, but, if we look around, we see other people in the most appalling condition, children starving, terrorism, hatred, wars, intolerance, people being tortured and we get a sort of queasy feeling whenever we think about the world situation in even the most casual way. We, ourselves, will some day grow old, get sick and eventually die. No matter how we try to avoid it, some day we are going to die. Even though we try to avoid thinking about it, there are constant reminders that it is true.
The second noble truth is that suffering has a cause. We suffer because we are constantly struggling to survive. We are constantly trying to prove our existence. We may be extremely humble and self-deprecating, but even that is an attempt to define ourselves. We are defined by our humility. The harder we struggle to establish ourselves and our relationships, the more painful our experience becomes.
The third noble truth is that the cause of suffering can be ended. Our struggle to survive, our effort to prove ourselves and solidify our relationships is unnecessary. We, and the world, can get along quite comfortably without all our unnecessary posturing. We could just be a simple, direct and straight-forward person. We could form a simple relationship with our world, our coffee, spouse and friend. We do this by abandoning our expectations about how we think things should be.
This is the fourth noble truth: the way, or path to end the cause of suffering. The central theme of this way is meditation. Meditation, here, means the practice of mindfulness/awareness, shamata/vipashyana in Sanskrit. We practice being mindful of all the things that we use to torture ourselves with. We become mindful by abandoning our expectations about the way we think things should be and, out of our mindfulness, we begin to develop awareness about the way things really are. We begin to develop the insight that things are really quite simple, that we can handle ourselves, and our relationships, very well as soon as we stop being so manipulative and complex.
The Five Skandhas
The Buddhist doctrine of egolessness seems to be a bit confusing to westerners. I think this is because there is some confusion as to what is meant by ego. Ego, in the Buddhist sense, is quite different from the Freudian ego. The Buddhist ego is a collection of mental events classified into five categories, called skandhas, loosely translated as bundles, or heaps.
If we were to borrow a western expression, we could say that "in the beginning" things were going along quite well. At some point, however, there was a loss of confidence in the way things were going. There was a kind of primordial panic which produced confusion about what was happening. Rather than acknowledging this loss of confidence, there was an identification with the panic and confusion. Ego began to form. This is known as the first skandha, the skandha of form.
After the identification with confusion, ego begins to explore how it feels about the formation of this experience. If we like the experience, we try to draw it in. If we dislike it, we try to push it away, or destroy it. If we feel neutral about it, we just ignore it. The way we feel about the experience is called the skandha of form; what we try to do about it is known as the skandha of impulse/perception.
The next stage is to try to identify, or label the experience. If we can put it into a category, we can manipulate it better. Then we would have a whole bag of tricks to use on it. This is the skandha of concept. The final step in the birth of ego, is called the skandha of consciousness. Ego begins to churn thoughts and emotions around and around. This makes ego feel solid and real. The churning around and around is called samsara -- literally, to whirl about. The way ego feels about its situation (skandha of feeling) determines which of the six realms of existence it creates for itself.
The Six Realms
If ego decides it likes the situation, it begins to churn up all sorts of ways to possess it. A craving to consume the situation arises and we long to satisfy that craving. Once we do, a ghost of that craving carries over and we look around for something else to consume. We get into the habitual pattern of becoming consumer oriented. Perhaps we order a piece of software for our computer. We play with it for awhile, until the novelty wears out, and then we look around for the next piece of software that has the magic glow of not being possessed yet. Soon we haven't even got the shrink wrap off the current package when we start looking for the next one. Owning the software and using it doesn't seem to be as important as wanting it, looking forward to its arrival. This is known as the hungry ghost realm where we have made an occupation out of craving. We can never find satisfaction, it is like drinking salt water to quench our thirst.
Another realm is the animal realm, or having the mind like that of an animal. Here we find security by making certain that everything is totally predictable. We only buy blue chip stock, never take a chance and never look at new possibilities. The thought of new possibilities frightens us and we look with scorn at anyone who suggests anything innovative. This realm is characterised by ignorance. We put on blinders and only look straight ahead, never to the right or left.
The hell realm is characterised by acute aggression. We build a wall of anger between ourselves and our experience. Everything irritates us, even the most innocuous, and innocent statement drives us mad with anger. The heat of our anger is reflected back on us and sends us into a frenzy to escape from our torture, which in turn causes us to fight even harder and get even angrier. The whole thing builds on itself until we don't even know if we're fighting with someone else or ourselves. We are so busy fighting that we can't find an alternative to fighting; the possibility of alternative never even occurs to us.
These are the three lower realms. One of the three higher realms is called the jealous god realm. This pattern of existence is characterised by acute paranoia. We are always concerned with "making it". Everything is seen from a competitive point of view. We are always trying to score points, and trying to prevent others from scoring on us. If someone achieves something special we become determined to out do them. We never trust anyone; we "know" they're trying to slip one past us. If someone tries to help us, we try to figure out their angle. If someone doesn't try to help us, they are being uncooperative, and we make a note to ourselves that we will get even later. "Don't get mad, get even," that's our motto.
At some point we might hear about spirituality. We might hear about the possibility of meditation techniques, imported from some eastern religion, or mystical western one, that will make our minds peaceful and absorb us into a universal harmony. We begin to meditate and perform certain rituals and we find ourselves absorbed into infinite space and blissful states of existence. Everything sparkles with love and light; we become godlike beings. We become proud of our godlike powers of meditative absorption. We might even dwell in the realm of infinite space where thoughts seldom arise to bother us. We ignore everything that doesn't confirm our godhood. We have manufactured the god realm, the highest of the six realms of existence. The problem is, that we have manufactured it. We begin to relax and no longer feel the need to maintain our exalted state. Eventually a small sliver of doubt occurs. Have we really made it? At first we are able to smooth over the question, but eventually the doubt begins to occur more and more frequently and soon we begin to struggle to regain our supreme confidence. As soon as we begin to struggle, we fall back into the lower realms and begin the whole process over and over; from god realm to jealous god realm to animal realm to hungry ghost realm to hell realm. At some point we begin to wonder if there isn't some sort of alternative to our habitual way of dealing with the world. This is the human realm.
The human realm is the only one in which liberation from the six states of existence is possible. The human realm is characterised by doubt and inquisitiveness and the longing for something better. We are not as absorbed by the all consuming preoccupations of the other states of being. We begin to wonder whether it is possible to relate to the world as simple, dignified human beings.
The Eightfold Path
The path to liberation from these miserable states of being, as taught by the Buddha, has eight points and is known as the eightfold path. The first point is called right view -- the right way to view the world. Wrong view occurs when we impose our expectations onto things; expectations about how we hope things will be, or about how we are afraid things might be. Right view occurs when we see things simply, as they are. It is an open and accommodating attitude. We abandon hope and fear and take joy in a simple straight-forward approach to life.
The second point of the path is called right intention. It proceeds from right view. If we are able to abandon our expectations, our hopes and fears, we no longer need to be manipulative. We don't have to try to con situations into our preconceived notions of how they should be. We work with what is. Our intentions are pure.
The third aspect of the path is right speech. Once our intentions are pure, we no longer have to be embarrassed about our speech. Since we aren't trying to manipulate people, we don't have to be hesitant about what we say, nor do we need to try bluff our way through a conversation with any sort of phoney confidence. We say what needs to be said, very simply in a genuine way.
The fourth point on the path, right discipline, involves a kind of renunciation. We need to give up our tendency to complicate issues. We practice simplicity. We have a simple straight-forward relationship with our dinner, our job, our house and our family. We give up all the unnecessary and frivolous complications that we usually try to cloud our relationships with.
Right livelihood is the fifth step on the path. It is only natural and right that we should earn our living. Often, many of us don't particularly enjoy our jobs. We can't wait to get home from work and begrudge the amount of time that our job takes away from our enjoyment of the good life. Perhaps, we might wish we had a more glamorous job. We don't feel that our job in a factory or office is in keeping with the image we want to project. The truth is, that we should be glad of our job, whatever it is. We should form a simple relationship with it. We need to perform it properly, with attention to detail.
The sixth aspect of the path is right effort. Wrong effort is struggle. We often approach a spiritual discipline as though we need to conquer our evil side and promote our good side. We are locked in combat with ourselves and try to obliterate the tiniest negative tendency. Right effort doesn't involve struggle at all. When we see things as they are, we can work with them, gently and without any kind of aggression whatsoever.
Right mindfulness, the seventh step, involves precision and clarity. We are mindful of the tiniest details of our experience. We are mindful of the way we talk, the way we perform our jobs, our posture, our attitude toward our friends and family, every detail.
Right concentration, or absorption is the eighth point of the path. Usually we are absorbed in absentmindedness. Our minds are completely captivated by all sorts of entertainment and speculations. Right absorption means that we are completely absorbed in nowness, in things as they are. This can only happen if we have some sort of discipline, such as sitting meditation. We might even say that without the discipline of sitting meditation, we can't walk the eightfold path at all. Sitting meditation cuts through our absentmindedness. It provides a space or gap in our preoccupation with ourselves.
The Goal
Most people have heard of nirvana. It has become equated with a sort of eastern version of heaven. Actually, nirvana simply means cessation. It is the cessation of passion, aggression and ignorance; the cessation of the struggle to prove our existence to the world, to survive. We don't have to struggle to survive after all. We have already survived. We survive now; the struggle was just an extra complication that we added to our lives because we had lost our confidence in the way things are. We no longer need to manipulate things as they are into things as we would like them to be.

*************************************************************************************************************

Buddhism : Australia's Reaction to a New Phenomenon
By Graeme Lyall

Originally Published in - Without Prejudice, No.7, April 1994, Melbourne, Australian Institute of Jewish Affairs.
In the year 563 B.C., on the border of modern day Nepal and India, a son was born to a chieftain of the Sakya kingdom. His name was Siddhartha Gotama and, at the age of thirty-five, he attained, after six years of struggle and through his own insight, full enlightenment or Buddhahood. The term 'Buddha' is not a name for a god or an incarnation of a god, despite later Hindu claims to the contrary, but is a title for one who has realised through good conduct, mental cultivation and wisdom the cause of life's vicissitudes and the way to overcome them. Buddhism is, perhaps, unique amongst the world's religions in that it does not place reliance for salvation on some external power, such as a god or even a Buddha, but places the responsibility for life's frustrations squarely on the
individual. The Buddha said:
By oneself indeed, is evil done; By oneself is one defiled By oneself is evil let undone; By oneself indeed, is one purified Purity and impurity depend on oneself No one purifies another (1)
His teaching can be summarised as:
Not to do any evil, To cultivate good, To purify one's mind, This is the Teaching of the Buddhas. (2)
To many people of other faiths the term 'Buddhist' conjures up ideas of idol worship and concepts that are an anathema to the followers of the, so called, 'religions of the book'. Buddhism, certainly, is very different from the Semitic religions, but it may surprise many of its critics to know that the Buddha condemned idolatry. When, just prior to his passing away, he was asked how he could be remembered, he replied that those who practised his teachings would remember him best. Prior to the arrival on th Indian sub-continent of the Bactrian-Greeks, Buddha images were unknown. The Buddha foresaw that worship of him in any form would result in his deification with its consequent emphasis on seeking salvation from an external power rather than identifying Nirvana, the eradication of greed, anger and delusion, as being solely within one's own power. Indeed, he was right. For many ethnic Buddhists, he is a God from whom they ask favours.
The Buddha said:
In this very body, Six feet in length, with its sense impressions and its thoughts and ideas, I declare to you are the world the origin of the world and the ceasing of the world, likewise Nirvana and the Path leading to Nirvana. (3) Today, apart from a revival amongst the scheduled castes, for purposes, mainly, of upward mobility, Buddhism is almost extinct in India, the land of its birth. Buddhism, in the early years of the Common Era, due to its popularity among the Indian people, was seen as a threat by the Hindus. To arrest its spread, the Hindu clergy spread the rumour that the Buddha was merely an incarnation of the Hindu God, Vishnu, who manifested to reform the excesses of Brahmanism due to its animal sacrifices an corrupt clergy. Therefore, they claimed. Buddhism was only a reform movement within Hinduism and not a distinct religion in its own right. Buddhists, however, would claim that the two teachings have little in common. For example, Hinduism places a heavy emphasis on the worship of God, a practice that has never had any place in Buddhism. The Hindu goal is the unification of the soul with God - Buddhists deny the existence of a soul or ego entity but regard what we call a person to be nothing but a constantly changing collection of elements and phenomena. Buddhism, therefore, shares little in common with Hinduism apart from sharing a common birthplace.
In 712 A.D. Buddhism fell victim to the Arab invaders, led by Muhammad Kasim,
His soldiers slaughtered a large number of 'samanis' (sramanasl who 'shaved their heads and beards' ---- Toward the end of the 8th century the Arabs swooped down upon the prosperous monasteries of Gujarat and destroyed the Buddhist University at Valabhi on the sea coast ' (4) However, during the reign, in India, of Asoka (273 - 276 B.C.) Buddhism spread outside India to Sri Lanka and, possibly, Burma (Myanmar) (5). it was later adopted by Cambodia, Laos and Thailand. These countries constitute the stronghold of the Theravada or the orthodox school of Buddhism. Another major school which had its roots in India in the fifth century B.C., but attained fruition at the beginning of the current era, the Mahayana or reformed school, spread to China, Korea, Japan and Vietnam. An offspring of the Mahayana school, the Vajrayana or Tantric school took root in Tibet in the seventh century and later spread to Mongolia, parts of China and currently has pockets of followers also in Korea (Chingak and Chongji sects) and Japan (Shingon sect). Perhaps, the arrival of the first Buddhists in Australia may have been with the armada of Cheng Ho in the 15th century. The Anthropologist, Professor A.P.Elkin, in his book, "Aboriginal Men of High Degree" suggests that the Ming dynasty emperors took a keen interest in exploration and several of their ships are known to have been in the vicinity of Arnhem Land around the early 1400's. In 1879, a statuette of a soapstone image of a Chinese deity, was unearthed one metre beneath a Banyan tree near Darwin. The historian, Professor Geoffrey Blainey claims, however, that soapstone would not have survived 400 years and so the statue must have been of more recent origin (6). If this were true, why was it buried so deeply? In the 1800's, especially during the gold rush era, many Chinese people arrived an Australia. Whether any of them were practising Buddhists, or perhaps more motivated by greed for gold, is unknown. Certainly, the 1800's saw the first establishment of, so called, "Joss Houses" on Australian soil. Klaas de Jong revealed in his booklet, "A Short Account of the Spread of Southern Buddhism in Australia and Queensland in Particular" (7), that a group of Sri Lankans arrived in Mackay and Burnett in Queensland, on board the ship, "Devonshire", on November, 1882. Attempts were made by a group, known as the 'Anti-coolie Leaguers', to prevent the Sri Lankans disembarking. Stones were thrown and knives drawn and this sad episode became known as the 'Battle of Burnett. There is evidence that many of these early migrants were Buddhists, but as de Jong noted: Pressure from the Christian establishment of the day must have been strong Within twenty year after their arrival, most if not all those that were still alive had been converted. If some older folk remained Buddhists at heart, their children apparently did not ' Six years prior to the arrival of the Sri Lankans in Mackay, there was a Buddhist temple on Thursday Island, the northernmost tip of Australia. Klaas de Jong reports that some five hundred Sri Lankans were involved. They were engaged in the pearl trade and they erected a small temple and planted a Bodhi tree, a descendent of the tree under which the Buddha is reputed to have sat on the night of his Enlightenment. Although remnants of this temple are reputed to have been incorporated into the present post office, the Bodhi tree, apparently, is still thriving. In the book, "Path to Righteousness"(8), originally published in the Maha-Bodhi Journal' between 1892 and 1900, it is reported that a Dr. Worthington formed a group called "Students of Truth" that regarded themselves as 'Christian Buddhists'. This group, apparently, had branches on mainland Australia as well as Tasmania and even extending to New Zealand. At that time, there was much hostility from the Christian churches to any favourable mention of Buddhism, let alone its practice. In 1897, a Victorian newspaper, The Healesville Guardian, published an article in defence of Buddhism, which resulted in a threatened boycott of the paper by several Christian ministers. Also in the 1880's, a South Australian newspaper published a long and, reportedly, interesting article on Buddhism that was later reprinted in the New South Wales rural newspaper, 'The Albury Banner'. This article invited the wrath of a Wesleyan minister and much published debate ensued. Anagarika Dhammapala further relates an insulting, unfair and distorted article appearing in a fortnightly Baptist periodical that, he claims, was "full of gross misrepresentations, evidently written out of vindictive malice. " A politely worded reply to the editor, pointing out the errors in the article elicited no response n 1890, Elise Pickett, who described herself as a Buddhist founded the Melbourne Theosophical Society. An active member of this Society was the three-times Australian Prime Minister, Alfred Deakin. Deakin was often lampooned in the press for his interests in Eastern philosophy - so much so that it became an electoral liability. It was Alfred Deakin, however, who, in 1901, introduced the Immigration Restriction Bill - the forerunner of Australia's notorious White Australia Policy. Paul Croucher (9) comments: 'In a curious way his position on the legislation was complimentary to Asians, however, for amid the grossest racism he posited that it was in fact 'the 'high abilities' and good qualities of these alien races that make them dangerous to us' His argument was based purely on the fear of economic competition, since he was far too well acquainted with Eastern culture to ever imply an inherent European superiority. The drift towards a White Australia was probably inexorable, and Deakin at least lent the debate a certain reasonableness. " In the 1950's, at the height of the 'McCarthy Era', Leo Berkeley, the founder of the Buddhist Society of New South Wales was visited by the Special Squad of the New South Wales Police inquiring if Buddhism was connected in any way with Communism. The large increase in Australia's Buddhist population since the mid 1970's has been largely due to refugees seeking a safe haven from the onslaught of Communism in Asia. The majority of these Buddhist newcomers came from Vietnam with a large number also coming from Cambodia and Laos. In recent years, an increasing number of Chinese Buddhists is arriving from Hong Kong due to the uncertainty of the imminent Communist Chinese takeover in 1997. Many ethnic Buddhists, trying to establish places of worship in Sydney, have encountered problems, both from local councils and from some residents. Due to their poor economic circumstances, inadequate awareness of Council planning regulations and the lack of local support organisations, many have resorted to establishing places of worship in rented houses. The Councils' threatened prosecution for illegal use of residential premises and the local residents objected, some with genuine concern about excessive parking, whilst others were more motivated by their inherent racism. In 1972 a group of Australian Buddhists applied to the Blue Mountains City Council for permission to establish a Buddhist meditation retreat centre in Katoomba, west of Sydney (10). They chose Cliff Drive, one of the most prestigious locations in the area. The local residents closed ranks and vehemently protested to the Council. One of the neighbours stated that she had lived in India for many years and knew that Buddhists chanted day and night accompanied by the 'ringing of bells, the clashing of cymbals and the sounding of gongs'. Apart from the Tibetan refugees now settled in India, Buddhism, is almost extinct in that country. The proposed development was for a meditation retreat in the Sri Lankan Theravada tradition. In actual fact, more noise was likely to emanate from the nearby residences than from the proposed Buddhist Centre. If anyone was to be the likely victim of noise, it would be the Buddhists. The Council rejected the application and an appeal was launched with the Local Government Appeals Tribunal. The Tribunal instructed the Council to offer alternative land or purchase the proposed site from the Buddhists. As the Council had not responded by 1974, the Tribunal brought down a decision in favour of the development stating that the Council and residents had misconceptions about the practices of the Buddhists. The Centre was opened m 1975 and since that time, no further complaints have been made about the existence of this Centre. At the end of 1979, a group of Vietnamese refugees met at a restaurant in Glebe, an inner city suburb, and formed the Vietnamese Buddhist Society of N.S.W. The first religious ceremonies organised by the Society were held at a Thai temple, Wat Buddharangsee, at Stanmore. Premises at Lakemba, a western suburb of Sydney, were later leased by the Society, to serve as a temporary temple, prior to the arrival of their monk Venerable Thich Bao Lac. It was not long before they struck problems with the local Council and the racism of the local residents. This forced the Society to seek Government assistance to find a more suitable place and to establish a more permanent place of worship. Land at Bonnyrigg, an outer western suburb, was leased to the Society by the Housing Commission of N.S.W. . Today, on this land stands the first, purpose built, Buddhist temple in metropolitan Sydney. The proposed development for a recently opened Chinese Buddhist Monastery at Homebush in the Strathfield Municipality, created a furore among some of the older Australian residents of the district. Although figures are not available for the Strathfield Municipality alone, the 1986 Commonwealth Census revealed that in the inner West Region of Sydney, of which the Strathfield Municipality forms a part, 10,513 residents are of Asian ethnic background - a not insignificant number. (11) An intensive letterboxing campaign by the next door neighbours of the monk Venerable Tsang Hui stated: If this type of development is allowed in A2 Class residential area your street may be next or even the back garden next door The value of your home your most valuable asset will be eroded. What some people or organisations would like to put in our garden suburb!!! It WAS called the "Oasis in the West " in our Council' s Centenary year, JUST three years ago!!! I know that most of us have worked all our adult life to own a place of our own to relax in in the evening of our life. Not to be faced with a fight to maintain peace and tranquillity and protect our landscape and view and the sight of native birds feeding in our garden and nestled in the many trees that would be affected by this proposed development Please act now you have only until 4 p.m. Friday 19th August to protest in writing. You may view the plan and model as suggested in the letter (from the Council) but your own intelligence wig paint in your mind's eye this hideous development to a back garden landscape. (12) The Strathfield Municipal Council, despite receiving 890 individual letters and a petition containing 840 signatures supporting the application and a petition organised by the neighbours, containing 273 signatures opposing it, unanimously rejected the Monastery's development application, so an appeal was lodged with the Land and Environment Court of N.S.W.. Mr. Justice Cripps of the N.S.W. Land and Environment Court ruled, on June the first, 1989, in favour of the Monastery's development application. He stated in his judgement: It became plain that the intensity of the opposition to the subject development was, in some instances, influenced by the circumstance that the religious institution was a Buddhist monastery. All residents were at pains to volunteer that their views were not "racist" and I accept their assessment of their objections. The question of what does or does not qualify as "racism" was not explored in the proceedings but because the word was bandied about during the course of the hearing, I feel bound to express my opinion that I do not think any objector is a racists just because he or she objects to a Buddhist temple functioning next door or in the near vicinity. It was stated explicitly by some and was implicit in the evidence of others that the opposition would not have been so intense had a comparable Christian establishment been proposed. By way of illustration, none of the residents seems to be duly concerned about the activities of the Lutheran church (nearly opposite) . ----------------------- It is made clear by the evidence, there is a need for the monastery in the sense that there are many people who wish to congregate as Buddhists The subject land is zoned residential but churches and educational establishments are permissible in residential areas. There are many churches in residential areas in Sydney, some of which have functions and undertake activities more intrusive than the subject proposal. It is, of course, not possible to speculate on the attitude Mr. and Mrs. Heath (next door neighbours) will have to the development if it proceeds. I am, however, confident that most other people who have expressed hostility to the concept will, with the passage of time, accept the monastery in the same way they presently accept the Lutheran church. (13.) Reluctant to accept the umpire's decision, the Heath's formed an organisation called 'Strathfield Overdevelopment Saviours (S.O.S.)' which enlisted the support of the then local State Member of Parliament, Paul Zammit, (now Federal Member for Lowe Electorate). He requested the Council to seek further legal advice in the hope that an appeal could be lodged against the judgment In a letter to the Town Clerk he wrote: I therefore respectfully request Council to urgently call an extra-ordinary Council meeting to discuss this matter in the hope that a second legal opinion be obtained with the full knowledge of certain inconsistencies and possible moral turpitude that have come to light. Should Council decide to proceed to hold this meeting I strongly urge that S. O S. on behalf of the residents, attend this meeting (14.) A copy of this letter was circulated to the local residents. When Ven.Tsang Hui's solicitor queried Zammit regarding his allegation of 'moral turpitude', he suggested that he suspected that the on the Monastery's petition were faked. He withdrew this comment after it was suggested that a defamation action could result unless he did. The Town Clerk wrote to the then N.S.W. Minister for Local Government and Planning, Mr. Hay, requesting that he overturn the Court's decision The Minister replied: I have noted the Council's views on the development however the council has presented its case to the Land and Environment Court and I have no power to overrule decisions of the court It is therefore inappropriate for me to meet with the council to discuss the issues. Should the council wish to pursue the proposal further within the court, it should seek further legal advice. (15.) The Council's 'further legal advice' was that there were no grounds for an appeal At the official opening of the Monastery, early in 1993, I questioned the Mayor of Strathfield on the current attitude of the local residents. The Mayor said that the Council had received no complaints and that the local residents, with the exception of the next door neighbours, had accepted the presence of a Buddhist monastery in their suburb. Mr. Justice Cripps was proved correct. Partly due to the efforts by the Ethnic Affairs Commission and the Department of Planning of New South Wales, to educate the public and draw the attention of Local Government to their obligations under Australia's 'Multicultural Policy' less problems concerning developments for places of worship are encountered today than has occurred in the past. Despite the efforts of Government, however, racism and prejudice are still alive and well among many members of the Australian community. Many laws aimed at countering racism, though well intentioned, are inadequate. Following a postering campaign by the neo-nazi, 'Australian Nationalists', criticising the 'Asianisation' of Australia and urging their readers to refuse to be served by Asian shop assistants, I lodged a complaint with the N.S.W. Anti Discrimination Board. Although I felt highly offended by material that could cause hurt to my fellow Australian residents, no action was taken because I am not of Asian background. The law states that action can only be taken if the offending material actually causes offence to the targeted group. I was asked by the Board to find an Asian who objected to the material and then a prosecution could perhaps, be launched. Many of our newcomers either have insufficient English to lodge a complaint or they fear the consequences if they 'make trouble', so, this deviant fascist minority gets away with its venomous propaganda despite our much touted racial vilification legislation. Many ethnic Buddhists believe, quite wrongly, that Australia is a Christian country and to indicate a deviation from the norm could be disadvantageous. Although the Christians are numerically the major religious grouping in Australia and carry the highest profile, Australia is a secular society and has no state religion. There was also a bias against Buddhists in the general Australian population as indicated in a 1989 Government study which showed that Buddhists were second only to Muslims as Australia's least popular religious group. It should be noted that Asians, the majority of whom are Buddhists, are fairly recent arrivals in, what may be considered, significant numbers. They have replaced the Greeks, Italians and 'Balts' as the whipping boys for Australia's ills. McAlister and Moore, the authors of this study conclude that: There must always be a group that is marginalised, against which frustration could be vented. This, of course, implies that the removal of one 'out' group will merely witness its replacement by another group in a continuous cycle ' According to the 1991 Commonwealth Census, 139,847 people in Australia, of whom 58,743 resident in New South Wales, listed their religion as Buddhist. This showed a significant increase since 1986 when 80,387 Buddhists were listed for Australia. The question pertaining to religion is the only non-compulsory question on the Census form with boxes being provided only for Christian denominations. Many ethnic Buddhists are not fluent in English, and therefore are less likely to answer questions requiring a written answer. Due to this possible bias in favour of Christians, the actual numbers of Buddhists in Australia could be considerably understated. Prejudice has been amply demonstrated earlier by the problems encountered in the past by the Chinese and Vietnamese Buddhist groups, especially at local government level. Buddhism, as such, has not been as subject to the degree of venomous attacks as has Islam but many Asian Buddhists have shared the indignity with Jews of being attacked purely on account of their ethnic origin. Hopefully, as time passes, Australia's multicultural community will become more coherent and we may set an example to the world that diversity is a characteristic to cherish. Diverse input to our developing culture and identity can only enrich Australia and demonstrate to the world that it is possible for people of many cultures, religions and ethnic backgrounds to live together harmoniously - free of the racial tension that is destroying communities in other parts of the world. May I conclude with the words of the former Premier of New South Wales, Barrie Unsworth, spoken at a State reception for the Buddhist community in 1987: Yours is an ancient philosophy that has had a beneficial influence on the development of the world. As a movement for peace moderation and tolerance you have always been and remain contemporary. That is why you are most welcome in New South Wales as fellow citizens and as seekers and teachers of truth. As followers of his Path you bring to your new life in New South Wales that same spirit of tolerance, gentleness and kindness that has continued through more than two and a half thousand years of your culture. That spirit is entirely complementary to the path of multiculturalism that l see as the future of this State.

*************************************************************************************************************

Buddhism for the future
By Venerable Dr. K. Sri Dhammananda

The Third Millenium
This year we, the members of the Human Race entered into what has been termed by the largely Western-dominated international media as the Third Millennium or Y2K for short. We have been subjected to an enormous amount of hype by commercial interest groups and some religious enthusiasts who promised us that the world would surely end. The ignorant, the superstitious and the fearful were especially a target for these groups. New cults sprang up threatening the wrath of a frustrated God on humanity that has consistently refused to believe in him or obey his unrealistic commands. The gullible were persuaded to part from their material wealth and even kill themselves to escape the ultimate, final, holocaust of the end of the world. Then of course, there were those who made loud and strident calls to warn us of the horrors of the "millennium bug" which would wipe out modern civilization at midnight on the last day of 1999. Computers were supposed to erase information relating to when we had been insured, when we were last inoculated, that our fixed deposits interest rates would have to be renewed... the prospects were simply horrifying! Then came the great anti-climax. nothing happened! There were many shame-faced religionists who had to run to their holy books and interpret them - once again.
Now, what was the Buddhist attitude to all of this? We did not join the mad crowd and view this whole situation calmly and rationally. To begin with, we remembered that we reached our second millennium five hundred years ago and we are already half way into our third millennium. That certainly gave us some greater seniority and maturity with which to view the universe and to advise our fellow beings on how to conduct ourselves in the pursuit of ultimate happiness. Perhaps we could now prevail on our younger brothers and sisters with different world views that their perspectives have motivated them to act in ways dangerous not only to the human race but to all inhabitants on this lovely planet, including plants and animals. Before we become too smug and divide the human race into "us" Buddhists and "them", the rest, let me hasten to remind ourselves that all of us have been guilty of joining the same rat race and those who call themselves "Buddhists" have just as happily trod the "primrose path" of sensuality, materialism and greed like almost everyone else in the 20th Century. What I will proceed to discuss in the rest of this essay is how the Sublime Teachings of the Buddha, if rightly understood and correctly followed by everyone can save the human race from ultimate disaster.
We need not think that the beginning of the 21st Century had any particular, or cosmic significance in the supramudane sense. Time is a human invention and a human being is no different today from what his ancestor was two or three thousand years ago. We humans have the same propensity for good or evil as our forebears, did during the time of the Buddha. The difference may be that today, given our vast technological advances and education, we are in a better position to develop our good or evil natures. If we have the good sense to slow down and look at the Teachings without bias and practice them sincerely, we can raise the human race to high levels of divinity. If we persist in ignoring the precious teaching we will continue to give in to the beast in us. The choice is ours. The Buddha taught for all mankind. If this message can be brought to all human beings, if we can persuade all human beings and their governments that the Buddha was not bound by narrow sectarian interests, but that he was concerned with all sentient beings, we would have gone a long way towards making this world a better place for all its inhabitants.
To effectively promote social harmony and universal peace through Buddhism we have some serious thinking to do. We should seriously consider what our attitude to the Buddha's message is; we must be united and not waste precious energy and resources arguing about the superiority of any particular school of Buddhism, we must recognize the rights of our fellow inhabitants on earth (including plants and animals); we must recognize the equality of all members of humanity, (including women and children). Once we have set our own house in order, so to speak, we will be in a better position to work for the happiness and welfare of everyone just as the Buddha intended.
Social Concerns
A great deal has been spoken and written about the Buddha's concern for the well-being of all living beings and humankind in particular. While the greater part of his ministry was devoted to the edification of those who renounced the worldly life, he was most free with his advice to uplift the condition of the householder. Some of the best known Sutras are devoted to the development of social harmony and are addressed to royalty as well as common folk. In the Agganna Sutra for example the Buddha speaks in mythical terms about the origin of society and the causes of inequality; in the Kasibharadvaja Sutra he distinguishes between labour for spiritual progress and labour to gain material wealth. In the Sigalovada Sutra he explains the duties and responsibilities of the different groups which comprise society - parents, children, husbands, wives, employers, employees, teachers and religious persons. He speaks of the benefits to be derived when every member of a community knows what is expected of him or her and sincerely fulfills his or her obligations. In the Parabhava Sutra he enumerates the various forms of antisocial behaviour which cause personal and social loss. In the Vyagghapajja Sutra he describes the benefits that can be gained by the householder even without "going forth". In one section of the Mahaparinibbana Sutra the Buddha explains the government and national unity. In the Mangala Sutra he enumerates good social behaviour which obstructs misery and woe to the individual and thereby the community.
Beside these sutras, there are of course the numerous stories and legends recorded in the Dhammapada and the Jataka which again emphasize the factors which promote social harmony and universal peace. The question now remains to be asked, how practical are these admonitions in modern times? It has often been suggested that the Buddhist formulae for social well being are rather idealistic. They may have worked when governments exerted far more power over their subjects in ancient India than they do today. Today's citizens are too independent and selfish to be ruled with gloved hands. This need not be so. People can still be treated humanely and we can still follow the principle that if you treat people well, they will behave well. Part of the reason why governments are so harsh today is that they operate from a point of view that the world is finite and that everything is real. We must remember that all the Buddha's advice was given against a world view which is totally different from the world view of a vast majority of humans today. If we want to effectively make use of the Buddha's Teaching to promote social harmony and universal peace we must begin to see the world as the Buddha did. We must "see the world as it really is". We must use all our efforts to give an understanding of the three characteristics of Anicca (impermanence), Dukkha (unsatisfactoriness) and Anatta (non self). Admittedly this is a huge task. We have to overcome two millennia of propaganda which spread the false notion that the world and its creatures were specially created for the selfish pleasure of man. We have to counter the Renaissance notion that "man is the measure of all things."
Surely it is a difficult task, but certainly it is not impossible. More and more people in developed countries are waking up to the obvious fact that the world was NOT made for man's pleasure, and that it was not created in one glorious moment but that everything that exists is an illusion and dependent on everything else, that man's ultimate happiness lies in his working not for himself alone but for the safety and happiness of others. This is exactly the Buddha's view and a large number of people, weary of past excesses and fearful of impending disaster are ready to give heed to the Buddha's advice on peaceful co?existence where duties and responsibilities take precedence over rights.
The time is therefore ripe for Buddhists all over the world to explain the message of the Buddha in modern terms, to help people understand the REAL nature of existence. Once there is Right (or Perfect) Understanding then naturally all other aspects of the teaching will not seem so naive and impractical after all. Already many education systems in the west are paying due attention to the development of a culture where man is taught to put the concerns of others before his own needs. Increasingly the innate goodness of beings is fostered through proper education and understanding. Yes, the Buddha's model for a Perfect Society can work, but we must work intelligently and ceaselessly to make it work. A Buddhist value system is already recognizable in many organizations such as UNESCO, WHO, FAO and so on. It is of no concern to us whether or not every human being is converted to Buddhism. The Buddha has declared that we can respect any system which contains aspects of the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS which obviously these organisations do. Our concern is only for the happiness of humanity, both material and spiritual. Greater awareness of the Buddha's teachings will make his principles universally accepted.
Unity in Buddhist Schools of Thought
To create this awareness Buddhists must adopt a two fold strategy. First we must put our own house in order. Two millennia of dissension within ourselves and aggression from outside have weakened our practice. We must look at ourselves clearly and examine what are our inner weaknesses which reduce our ability to truly practise the Buddha's message to help our fellow beings. Ever since the First Council following the passing away of the Buddha we Buddhists have expended enormous amounts of energy to develop different schools or traditions within Buddhism. Of course this development of our divergent views took place with a degree of brotherly feeling which is unique in the history of religion. We can proudly assert again and again that we have practiced a path of peace which is unique. We can proudly assert again and again that guided by the Master's Teachings in the Kalama Sutra (and reiterated in the edicts of Asoka) we have never shed a drop of blood or raised a single whip to spread our beliefs or to defend them. This record alone gives us a greater credibility over others. We have the blueprint to create universal peace.
However, let's be realistic. While we can go on forever patting ourselves on our backs for our tolerance, the fact remains that we have gone in different directions and that we have tended to consider "our" school superior to that of others. The Buddha taught only one Path to Perfection. Our imperfections gave rise to the different schools. The time has come for us to transcend our narrow sectarian views and look forward to developing an understanding of what has been, described as "Transcendental Buddhism". This pooling of our resources, and leaving behind our culture-bound approach to the teachings, has become absolutely necessary, given the fact that the world has shrunk so much and so many people with such diverse languages, beliefs, cultures and attitudes are taking an interest in the Buddha and his teachings. All of us, who have inherited this rich treasure from various sources, must come together to help all of mankind gain ultimate happiness.
This does not mean of course that we must abandon the indescribable richness and variety of our different traditions. The world would be so much poorer if we lost the invaluable treasures of Sri Lankan, Japanese, Korean Chinese, Tibetan and South East Asian Buddhist way of life. No, what I mean is, while we continue to foster the mundane manifestations of the teachings within our own cultures, we must vigorously make efforts to let the world hear the Buddha's voice. This will reduce the confusion regarding the Teachings especially among people who hear it for the first time. After all, we must never lose sight of the Buddha's first injunction to spread the Dharma for "the happiness and welfare of sentient beings". This clearly altruistic motive for our missionary efforts must never be forgotten. To realize this ideal we must be humble and be prepared to look at the teachings of the other schools without discrimination. Members of the Sangha particularly must highlight the areas of agreement amongst the various schools so that the younger generation is helped to view Buddhism as a perfect, harmonious whole that evolved from a single teaching.
One way of doing this of course is to encourage more dialogue amongst the different traditions. The "First World Buddhist Propagation Conference" organized by the Nembutsu Sect of Japan, in Kyoto in 1998 is an excellent example of such a successful meeting of Buddhist minds. Such gatherings of prominent Buddhists from different traditions, meeting amicably, serve to remind the world that Buddhists are really united and do share identical views on such issues as enlightenment and service to mankind.
An obvious area where Buddhists can promote cooperation effectively is in the dissemination of the Dharma. Books, periodicals, magazines and m6re recently the Internet should all try to encourage inter-sectarian dialogue between schools of Buddhism so that readers begin to see the underlying unity of Buddhism in the apparent diversity of its practices.
Role of the Sangha
Aside from making efforts to come together and fostering the acceptance of the concept of Transcendental Buddhism, one more area we must look at seriously to ensure our inner strength in the Buddhist world, is the Role of the Sangha. It is clear that the Buddha recognized the vital importance of the Sangha in keeping alive the purity of his Teaching. This. is evidenced by the fact that he included the Sangha as the third component of the Holy Triple Gem. The Sangha's important role then and now as the transmitter of the Dharma across time and space can never be underestimated. From the Buddha's time until now the history of Buddhism has been illuminated by such glorious names as Sariputta, Moggallana, Ananda, Mahinda, Sanghamitta, Nagarjuna, Vasubhandhu, Bodhidharma, Asvaghosa, Buddhaghosa, Yuan Chuan, Fa Hsien ... the list is endless. Philosophers, preachers, commentators, travellers ... they all had one thing in common. They were sons and daughters of the Buddha. Even in our own times there are so many names of members of the Sangha who keep the glorious flame of the Dharma alive, bringing the voice of the Buddha to every corner of the globe.
From the time of the Buddha right up to our own times, the members of the Sangha have been the force which sustained and interpreted the Buddha-word so that it is kept ever alive and fresh in the hearts and minds of men and women. So much for their importance. Let us now look at their function in today's society and the challenges that they face.
Although there have been great monks who went far beyond the monasteries in which they first donned the mendicants' garb, the vast majority of monks never strayed beyond their monastery walls. They were content to live quiet secluded lives of contemplation avoiding as much as possible the turmoil of the outside world. But as we reach the end of the twentieth century we cannot ignore the fact that the world is indeed very different from what it was for centuries, particularly in Asia. The world is creeping very much into the monastery. The monk is increasingly called upon to serve the society which supports his material needs. It is no longer enough to conduct the occasional devotional practices for the lay person or teach the rudiments of reading and writing and calculation to his children. The world has shrunk. Events which occur in the US or Europe deeply affect the lives of everyone on the planet. The Buddhist monk is part of that global life. Social harmony and Universal Peace are the responsibility of everyone on this planet: the Buddhist monk must carry out his part of that responsibility. The obvious exception to this is of course, the Bhikkhu of the Forest tradition, who completely renounces all contact with society and seeks salvation for himself. The monastery monk does not fall into this category.
Not only in Asia, but in Europe, the Americas, Australia, and increasingly, even in Africa, Buddhism is playing a vital role in contributing to social harmony and universal peace. The Buddhist monks or nuns are the vital links between the Buddha's message of peace and harmony and the people of the world who so desperately need it.
Is the Sangha ready for the challenge?
My immediate and honest answer to that is "No. At least not yet".
To begin with, traditional life in rural Asia has changed very little over the centuries. But at the same time, technological and urban developments and westernisation have moved ahead at dizzying speeds. The result : the average Buddhist in a traditional Buddhist country (possibly with the exception of Japan) has become increasingly disoriented and there exists a vast gap within him, between his traditional values and his modern concept of the world with its banking systems, sensational entertainment, materialism, nuclear families and so on. He is torn between what he is "told" he should be as a model Buddhist parent, son, employee or citizen, and the demands made on him in the real world: the world of materialism, greed and selfishness. Too often, the Sangha is ill-equipped to help their lay supporters to bridge the gap between the modern and the traditional. The average modern monk in a Buddhist country is found to be woefully out of touch with the modern world. It is more likely he has not even seen a computer, let alone being proficient to operate one! He has very little contact with the outside world, so how can he help his fellow beings to cope with it?
What is interesting to note here is that this has not always been so. Who can deny that a Buddhist monk has always been an agent of change for the better throughout history? Who can deny that it was the Buddhist monk who brought Art, Architecture, Technology, Music and Medicine to every country in Asia? It has even been suggested that the ancient Egyptian THERAPEUTAE who practised monasticism and specialized in healing ("therapeutic") were originally Buddhist monks, therapeutic being a corruption of THERAVADA! Be that as it may, the Sangha civilized the ancient world. But they can hardly be held up as role models for change today! What happened? Of course we can point a, finger at colonization, but blaming others for our shortcomings is a luxury we can ill afford. The only thing we can do is to ask ourselves how we can change the situation and once again make the Buddhist monk the leader of men and women in his society.
I believe the key is in Education. Governments as well as social reformers in Buddhist countries must recognize the tremendous potential that members of the Sangha have to help their fellow beings. They are generally highly intelligent as can be seen by , their ability to memorize, understand, interpret and teach the Sublime Dhamma. While continuing to uphold these traditional forms of learning, we must give them additional skills - computer-literacy, farming techniques, counseling, engineering, nursing, teaching for example. They must not only be proficient in the Dharma, they must be practical in serving society's material needs. Over the centuries the Saffron robe has earned its wearer a high degree of respect. Today the Buddhist monk can make use of this psychological tool to help laymen become better people. It must never be forgotten that the Buddha never condemned material prosperity. There are enough Sutras in our scriptures to show that the Buddha even went to the extent of declaring that wealth, honestly earned, gave a person self esteem, human dignity and the power to do good. The Buddhist monk who helps his lay devotee to attain material success WITH RIGHT UNDERSTANDING is indeed following his Master's injunction to work for the benefit and welfare of humanity.
All of this however could possibly lead to a further problem. And that is, we could have monks who are trained without understanding. They could go to the other extreme and cut off all links with the past. (It has happened!) No, monks have an all important role to uphold tradition. Tradition links us to the past. It gives us our roots, it helps us to remain steady against the onslaught of alien cultures, alien religious practices and alien values. The monk must be so steeped in and proud of his significant traditions that he imbues his devotees with that same love and pride in his own culture. Can it be done? Of course! Just look at Japan.
This is one area where the Sangha can perform a useful function as a factor in promoting harmony by contributing to the success of that society economically.
The Bhikkhuni Order
Another area which is worth looking into is the Bhikkhuni Order. I am certainly aware that this is still a thorny issue among some quarters, but I am convinced that there are fewer people around who cannot see the importance of the Bhikkhuni Sangha. It is again a matter of great pride to us, that the Buddha was the first religious teacher * to constitute the component of female monasticism. While it cannot be denied that he had some well?founded initial reservations, he did give in to Ananda. What is generally (conveniently?) overlooked is that the organization spread like wildfire, almost literally, as soon as it was instituted, showing the tremendous spiritual need women had for upliftment. It is also a matter of record (to the eternal credit of the Buddha) that once accepted, women had no difficulty whatsoever in achieving the highest pinnacles of spiritual achievements human beings are capable of: Patacara, Khema, Kisagotami, Dhammadinna, Uppalavanna, Visakha .. need one continue?
Today, women have proven that they are capable of becoming Presidents, Prime Ministers and Scientists as well as teachers and nurses, women are equal partners in every field of human endeavour. It is time, therefore that Buddhists recognize the tremendous contributions women can make to the promotion of Social Harmony and Universal Peace. In fact women have made contributions to both these areas and they can do so today. It is of course a credit to the Buddha's Teaching on this matter that the first woman prime minister of the world was a Buddhist woman from Sri Lanka. A belief that as nuns, Buddhist women have an undeniable role to play especially in harnessing the female workforce and playing an efficient and intelligent part in human development. Their contribution can be invaluable as teachers, nurses, counselors, in fact, as anything, to effect social change. The voice of the women can no longer be ignored as a voice to seek and promote International Peace. As mothers they are better qualified than anybody else to speak against the sacrifice of sons and husbands on the altars of war.
The Sangha male and female, if properly trained and conversant in many languages and skilled in many disciplines, can be a powerful force in the development of peace. Thanks to world leaders like H.H. the Dalai Lama, the Buddhist monk has always been a symbol of peace even among non-Buddhists. What is necessary now is for
buddhist monks and nuns the world over to equip themselves with the skills needed to spread the Buddha's message of peace to all mankind. Given our past history of nonviolence, we are better qualified than anyone else to encourage everyone to practice the "love thy neighbour" policy.
The Lay Person
In a wider sense the Sangha comprises not only Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunis but Upasakas and Upasikas (male and female lay devotees) as well. Given the admirable spirit of democracy proclaimed and practised by the Buddha, the members of the Sangha as well as lay people have duties and responsibilities towards the development of Social Harmony and Universal Peace. There are today upasakas and upasikas who are performing an invaluable service in spreading the Buddha's message in the world. This is especially true in non-traditional buddhist countries like Malaysia and Singapore where lay devotees are leading their friends to practice the noble Teachings by leading fellow buddhists along the Path. They even build and run Viharas, Orphanages, Old Folks Homes, Clinics to serve the community. In the Western, developed countries also lay buddhists will play an increasingly important role to promote International Peace in the world, although perhaps they may not be needed as much in areas of social development. This does not mean however that the Sangha will be replaced by lay workers in the cause of Buddhism either in the near or distant future. The Sangha will and must continue to play an important role not only as guardians of the Dharma but also as a role models and teachers of the lay people in matters pertaining to Buddhism. This of course further emphasizes the point that the Sangha must be capable of taking on this added responsibility of training lay people for Dhammaduta work.
Buddhism as a force against war
Still on the theme of International Peace, religious leaders have an increasingly important role to play in teaching their followers to walk in the path of peace. Sadly however, the history of mankind is replete with examples of so called religious people who waged war in the name of religion. Buddhism never has and never can ever condone war even if it is disguised as a "just" or "holy" war. The Buddha condemned violence of any kind for whatever reason. He repeatedly declared that the only victory is the conquest of self and the only miracle is the conversion from evil to good. Buddhists therefore, Sangha and lay people alike, are bound by precedent and precept never to wage war but to persuade all people to walk the path of Peace. It, is certainly not an accident therefore that the UNESCO Charter begins with the preamble : "Since it is in the minds of men that wars are created, it is in the minds of men that the fortresses against war must be erected". This is almost exactly like the very first verse of the Dhammapada which states:
"Mind precedes all wholesome and unwholesome states and is their chief; they are all mind wrought. If with an impure mind a person speaks or acts, misery follows him like the wheel that follows the foot of the ox".
If one speaks or acts with pure mind, because of that, happiness~ follows one, even as one's shadow that never leaves. The teaching of the Buddha, if inculcated in the young mind from the beginning, will no doubt be a powerful civilizing factor that will turn humanity from violence to compassion. One of our tasks therefore is to make available the teachings of Buddha in more languages and through various media, including the Internet.
Although the human race has made such tremendous progress in almost every field of endeavour, warfare is one area in which we have behaved no better than animals. In fact one might even say that we have even descended lower than animals because given our higher intelligence we should know better than to succumb to our lower instincts of lust, anger, hatred and delusion. It has been said that man's worst characteristic is his ability to inflict pain - mental and physical - on his fellow beings. The worst manifestation of this irrational behaviour is man's tendency to wage war on the flimsiest of excuses. Ever since man learnt to hold a weapon he has waged war against his fellow beings, aro., any student of history will readily agree that there never has been such a thing as a "just war". And wars get from bad to worse. At least in the past, wars were only waged between men silly enough to get involved on the battlefields. But today whole hordes of innocent men, women, children and even animals suffer indescribable privations as a result of war. Mothers are separated from children, husbands are separated from wives, brothers are separated from sisters - there is no end.
Some people argue that conflict and war cannot be avoided because they are expressions of human nature. I am realistic enough to realize that it would be foolhardy to sit down and do nothing when aggressors are brutally destroying innocent lives on the basis of unrealistic and unfounded claims, but we must always bear in mind that war is at best a last resort to maintain peace. However, if we believe that war is inevitable, then we will wage war. But if, like the great emperor Asoka, we have the spiritual development and the wisdom to see the folly of war we can certainly avoid it. Buddhists can be very proud of the fact that in our own times the greatest advocate of peace is His Holiness the Dalai Lama of Tibet. For nearly half a century this great Buddhist leader has worked tirelessly to regain his homeland, without once uttering a malicious word against those who occupy his land. He has never condemned them but treated them as fellow-beings. On the other hand, he has not been a coward either. He has fearlessly spoken against the ill?treatment of his subjects and the lies spread against him. But he has not chosen to take arms against his people's aggressors. This is because he lives by the advice of the Buddha given in the Dhammapada,
"Hatred does not end by hatred By love alone it is quelled".
A struggle which is ended by force is no victory. Real victory can only be attained by a true change of heart founded on understanding on the part of the aggressor. His Holiness the Dalai Lama truly believes in inculcating peace through non violence.
We are all familiar with the story of how during the time of the Buddha a prince called Vidudabha annihilated the entire Sakya clan simply because he harboured a grudge against them for a slight insult. We have to learn from that example and seek rather to follow in the footsteps of the great king whose name was changed from Chanda (cruel) Asoka to Dhamma (righteous) Asoka because he had the wisdom to walk the path shown by the Buddha. Let us also recall the Buddha's declaration that the people of a certain kingdom could not be overcome by force because they followed the seven conditions for the progress of a nation. These examples show that war is avoidable if we truly wish it. There is a principle of Modern Management today which declares that if we expect Zero Defects in our operations we will achieve them. Similarly if we envisage a society without war, we will achieve peace. Unfortunately we have been so indoctrinated to believe that war is the only way to get what we want, that we will continue to wage war. The most horrible irony of it is that people even wage wars in the name of religions which teach the brotherhood of man.
Therefore the greatest challenge facing us in the next millenium is to grow up, to stop fighting like small boys and heed the word of the Enlightened One :
All fear death, All fear the rod, Knowing this we should never strike Nor cause to strike.
Proselitisation
The world today is divided by many factors. Sad to say one of the most important of the organizations responsible for these many divisions is religion. Today, perhaps like at no other time in history, are the vast resources of certain religious organizations being exploited shamelessly in a mad scramble to win converts at any cost. These include the spreading of malicious lies against other religions like Buddhism. Young, innocent impressionable people are being lured away from their traditional religion through blatant false propaganda and even through bribes. There are instances of whole villages in certain countries being converted en masse through the promise of material gain. Conversion in itself may not be a bad thing, but when methods employed and the motives for converting are suspect then we must not stand idly by and do nothing about it.
In many countries conversions which are not accompanied by a full understanding of what is being accepted can lead to serious problems, often causing the breakup of marriages and families and other social problems. Therefore it is not conversion but buying people.
There is therefore an urgent need for Buddhists to seek the dialogue with other religious groups to voice our dissatisfaction with their activities. There are genuine members of these faiths who are themselves embarrassed by the antics of their fellow religionists. They must speak against their own kind and Buddhists must make every effort to urge them to do so. In the past, traditional religions were the victims of colonial missionaries. Today, the problem is much more insidious - citizens of the same country are working to undermine the traditional cultures and practices of their forefathers and introducing alien ways to their people, separating parents and children, the old and the young.
Ecumenism
On a more positive note, however, Buddhists have always been encouraged, in the KALAMA SUTRA for example, to seek dialogue with others to show respect for other genuine seekers after the truth. We need to talk with other religionists formally and informally to know how they think, to show them how we think and to find common ground on which we can cooperate to work for the betterment of the human race. In some cases we must even be humble enough to admit that we can adopt their methods particularly in social and charity work and help the poor and the weak and helpless in every corner of the world.
Buddhist Values
Having examined some of the challenges facing Buddhists today and how we can help to promote peace and social harmony let us examine how we can identify some Buddhist values which we will need to achieve our goals.
It cannot be said that there are "Buddhist Values" which are unique to Buddhism and not to be found in other religious systems. The Buddha recognized this when he declared that we must accept and recognize the worth of any religion in so far as that religion contains the Four Noble Truths. What is unique about Buddhism is our UNDERSTANDING of the nature of these values and why we practice them. When the Bodhisatta practised the Ten Paramis, he was motivated in an entirely different way than any other follower of a spiritual path either in part or as a whole.
The ten paramis - dana (generosity), sila (precept), nekkhamma (renunciation), panna (wisdom), viriya (energy), khanti (patience) sacca (truthfulness), adhitthana (determination), metta (loving kindness) and upekkha (equanimity)