Who causes
happiness and suffering?
According to the Buddha's words, "Through Ignorance,
bodily actions ... verbal actions ... mental actions ... are created, of one's
own accord ... through external influences ... knowingly ... unknowingly."
There are also instances where the Buddha refuted both the theory that all happiness
and suffering are caused by the self (known as attakaravada) and the theory that
all happiness and suffering are caused by external forces (known as parakaravada).
This highlights the need to see kamma in its relation to the entire stream of
cause and effect. The extent of any involvement, either one's own or of external
factors, must be considered in relation to this process. Otherwise the common
misunderstanding arises that all events are caused by personal actions, to the
exclusion of everything else.
What must be grasped is the difference between
kamma in the context of natural law, and kamma in the context of ethics. When
speaking of kamma as a natural law, a process that exists in nature and incorporates
a wide range of conditioning factors, we do not overemphasize the role of individual
action, so we say that kamma is not the only cause of happiness and suffering.
But on the level of ethics, the teaching of kamma is meant to be used on a practical
basis. Consequently, full responsibility is placed on the individual. This is
emphasized in the Buddha?s words from the Dhammapada, "Be a refuge unto yourself."
In addition to meaning that we must help ourselves, this injunction also includes
our relationship when helped by others. That is, even in the event of help arising
from external sources, we are still responsible for accepting such help on all
or any of the following three levels: (a) In the invitation, whether intentional
or otherwise, whether conscious or not, of such help; (b) In fostering such help
through appropriate behavior; (c) And at the very least, in the acceptance of
such help. For this reason, the principle of kamma on the level of natural law
and on the level of ethics do not conflict, but actually support each other.
Beliefs
that are contrary to the law of kamma
There are three philosophies which are
considered by Buddhism to be wrong view and which must be carefully distinguished
from the teaching of kamma:
1. Pubbekatahetuvada: The belief that all happiness
and suffering arise from previous kamma (Past-action determinism).
2. Issaranimmanahetuvada:
The belief that all happiness and suffering are caused by the directives of a
Supreme Being (Theistic determinism).
3. Ahetu-apaccayavada: The belief that
all happiness and suffering are random, having no cause (Indeterminism or Accidentalism).
Concerning this, we have the Buddha's words:
"Bhikkhus, these three
sects, on being questioned by the wise, fall back on tradition and stand fast
on inaction. They are:
1. The group of ascetics or Brahmins which teaches
and is of the view that all happiness, suffering and neutral feeling are entirely
a result of kamma done in a previous time.
2. The group of ascetics and Brahmins
which teaches and is of the view that all happiness, suffering and neutral feeling
are entirely a result of the will of a Supreme Being.
3. The group of ascetics
and Brahmins which teaches and is of the view that all happiness, suffering and
neutral feeling are entirely without cause.
"Bhikkhus, of those three
groups of ascetics and Brahmins, I approach the first group and ask, 'I hear that
you uphold this teaching and view ... Is that so?' If those ascetics and Brahmins,
on being thus questioned by me, answer that it is so, then I say to them, 'If
that is so, then you have killed living beings as a result of kamma committed
in a previous time, have stolen as a result of kamma done at a previous time,
have engaged in sexual misconduct ... have uttered false speech ... have held
wrong view as a result of kamma done in a previous time.'
"Bhikkhus,
adhering to previously done kamma as the essence, there are neither motivation
nor effort with what should be done and what should not be done ... Not upholding
ardently what should be done, nor abandoning what should be abandoned, those ascetics
and Brahmins are as if deluded, lacking a control, incapable of having any true
teaching. This is our legitimate refutation of the first group of ascetics and
Brahmins holding these views.
"Bhikkhus, of those three groups of ascetics
and Brahmins, I approach the second group ... and say to them, 'If that is so,
then you have killed living beings because of the directives of a Supreme Being
... stolen the goods of others ... engaged in sexual misconduct ... uttered false
speech ... have held wrong view because of the directives of a Supreme Being.'
"Bhikkhus, adhering to the will of a Supreme Being as the essence, there
are neither motivation nor effort with what should be done and what should not
be done ...
"Bhikkhus, of those groups of ascetics and Brahmins, I approach
the third ... and say to them, 'If that is so, then you have killed living beings
for no reason whatsoever ... stolen the goods of others ... engaged in sexual
misconduct ... uttered false speech ... have held wrong view for no reason whatsoever.'
"Bhikkhus, adhering to accidentalism as being the essence, there are
neither motivation nor effort with what should be done and what should not be
done ..."[42]
The first of these three schools of thought is that of the
Niganthas, about which we can learn some more from the Buddha's words:
"Bhikkhus,
there are some ascetics and Brahmins who are of this view, 'All happiness and
suffering are entirely caused by previous kamma. For this reason, with the exhausting
of old kamma through austerities, there will be no influence exerted by kamma-results.
When there is no more influence of kamma-results, kamma is ended. With the ending
of kamma there is an ending of suffering. With the ending of suffering there is
an ending of feeling. With the ending of feeling, all suffering is eventually
extinguished.' Bhikkhus, the Niganthas are of this view."[43]
The following
words from the Buddha clearly illustrate the Buddhist view:
"Listen,
Sivaka. Some kinds of feeling arise with bile as condition ... with changes in
the weather as condition ... with inconstant behavior as condition ... with danger
from an external source as condition ... with kamma-results as condition. Any
ascetic or Brahmin who is of the view that, 'All feeling is entirely caused by
previous kamma,' I say is mistaken."[44]
These words discourage us from
going too far with kamma by considering it as entirely a thing of the past. Such
a view encourages inactivity; passively waiting for the results of old kamma to
ripen and taking things as they come without thinking to correct or improve them.
This is a harmful form of wrong view, as can be seen from the Buddha's words above.
Significantly, in the above passage, the Buddha asserts effort and motivation
as the crucial factors in deciding the ethical value of these various teachings
on kamma.
The Buddha did not dismiss the importance of previous kamma, because
it does play a part in the cause and effect process, and thus has an effect on
the present in its capacity as one of the conditioning factors. But it is simply
one of those conditions, it is not a supernatural force to be clung to or submitted
to passively. An understanding of the Principle of Dependent Origination and the
cause and effect process will clarify this.
For example, if a man climbs to
the third floor of a building, it is undeniably true that his arriving is a result
of past action -- namely, walking up the stairs. And having arrived there, it
is impossible for him to reach out and touch the ground with his hand, or to drive
a car around. Obviously, this is because he has gone up to the third floor. Or,
having arrived at the third floor, whether he is too exhausted to continue is
also related to having walked up the stairs. His arrival there, the things he
is able to do there and the situations he is likely to encounter, are all certainly
related to the "old kamma" of having walked up the stairs. But exactly
which actions he will perform, his reactions to the situations which he meets
there, whether he will take a rest, walk on, or walk back down the stairs and
out of that building, are all matters which he can decide for himself in that
present moment, for which he will also reap the results. Even though the action
of walking up the stairs may still be influencing him (for example, with his strength
sapped he may be unable to function efficiently in any given situation), whether
he decides to give in to that tiredness or try to overcome it are all matters
which he can decide for himself in the present moment.
Therefore, old kamma
should be understood in its relation to the whole cause and effect process. In
terms of ethical practice, to understand the cause and effect process is to be
able to learn from old kamma, understanding the situation at hand, and to skillfully
make a plan of action for improving on and preparing for the future.
Can kamma
be erased?
At one time the Buddha said:
"Bhikkhus, there are those
who say 'Whatever kamma is made by this man, he will receive identical results
thereof.' If such were the case, there could be no higher life, no path could
be perceived for the successful ending of suffering.[a]
"But with the
view, 'When kamma based on a certain kind of feeling is made (pleasant or unpleasant,
for example), results arise in conformity with that feeling,' the higher life
can be, there is a way for the ending of suffering.
"Bhikkhus, for some
people, only a little bad kamma can lead to rebirth in hell, but for others that
same small amount of bad kamma will produce results only in the present moment,
and even then, only the most extreme aspects of it will become apparent, not the
minor.
"What kind of person is it who, for only a little bad kamma, goes
to hell? There are those who have not trained their actions, have not trained
in moral restraint, have not trained their minds and have not developed wisdom.
They are of little worth, are of small status and dwell discontented over minor
kamma results. This kind of person it is who, over just a little bad kamma, can
go to hell (like putting a lump of salt into a very small vessel).
"What
kind of person is it who, for exactly the same amount of bad kamma, receives fruit
only in the present, and even then, the minor aspects of that kamma do not manifest,
only the major? There are those who have trained their actions, have trained in
moral restraint, have trained their minds and have developed wisdom. They are
not of little worth, they are great beings, they have a measureless abiding. For
this kind of person, just the same kind of minor bad kamma gives results only
in the present, and even then the minor aspects of that kamma do not manifest,
only the major (like putting a lump of salt into a river)."[45]
* * *
"Listen, householder, some teachers give the teaching and are of the
view that those who kill living beings must without exception go to the woeful
states, falling to hell; that those who steal must without exception go to the
woeful states, falling to hell; that those who commit adultery must without exception
go to the woeful states, falling to hell; that those who lie must without exception
go to the woeful states, falling to hell. Disciples of those teachers, thinking,
'Our teacher gives the teaching and is of the view that those who kill living
beings must all fall into hell,' conceive the view thus, 'I have killed living
beings. Therefore I, too, must go to hell.' Not relinquishing that speech and
that view, he indeed goes to hell, just as if pushed there by force.
"As
for the Tathagata, fully enlightened Buddha, he arises in the world ... He speaks
in dispraise of killing living beings ... stealing ... adultery ... lying, in
many ways, and teaches, 'Killing of living beings ... stealing ... adultery ...
lying should be abandoned.' A disciple of the Teacher, reflecting thus, 'The Blessed
One speaks in dispraise of killing living beings ... in many a way, and teaches
the abandoning of killing living beings. I have killed many beings already. That
killing of living beings by me is not good, is not worthy. I will suffer on account
of those actions, and on their account I will not be beyond reproof.' Reflecting
in this way, he gives up killing of living beings, and is one who abandons the
killing of living beings from that moment on. Thus does he abandon that bad kamma
...
"He abandons the killing of living beings ... lying ... malicious
tale-bearing ... coarse speech ... frivolous speech ... covetousness ... enmity
... wrong view. He is one endowed with Right View, he is a Noble Disciple with
a mind free of greed, free of aversion, not deluded but possessed of self awareness
and firm mindfulness. He dwells with a mind full of goodwill, spreading to the
first ... second ... third ... the whole four directions, above, below, spreading
out wide to the whole world, to all beings in all places, with a mind full of
goodwill that is expansive, grand, boundless, free of enmity and ill will. Having
so thoroughly developed the Mind Deliverance through Goodwill, any moderate amount
of kamma previously done will no longer manifest ..."[46]
These words
have been quoted to prevent misunderstandings in relation to the fruition of kamma.
The present extract is only a small portion of the material available, as to present
it all would take up too much space.
Do kamma and not-self contradict each
other?
There is one question which, though only occasionally asked, tends
to linger in the minds of many newcomers to the study of Buddhism: "Do the
teachings of kamma and not-self contradict each other?" If everything, including
body and mind, is not-self, then how can there be kamma? Who is it who commits
kamma? Who receives the results of kamma? These doubts are not simply a phenomenon
of the present time, but have existed from the time of the Buddha, as can be seen
in the following example:
A bhikkhu conceived the following doubt,
"We
know that body, feeling, perception, volitional impulses and consciousness[b]
are not self. If so, then who is it who receives the results of the kamma made
by this 'non-self'?"
At that time, the Blessed One, knowing the thoughts
of that bhikkhu, addressed the bhikkhus thus:
"Bhikkhus, it may be that
some foolish people in this Teaching and Discipline, with mind fallen into ignorance
and confused by desire, might conceive the teaching of the Master to be rationalized
thus: 'We know that body, feeling, perception, volitional impulses and consciousness
are not self. If that is so, who is it who receives the results of the kamma created
by this "non-self"?' All of you now, having been thoroughly instructed
by me, consider these matters: is form permanent or impermanent?"
"Impermanent,
Lord."
"Is what is impermanent (a cause for) happiness or suffering?"
"Suffering, Lord"
"Of that which is impermanent, unsatisfactory,
and normally subject to degeneration, is it proper to say that 'this is mine,
this is me, this is my self'?"
"No, it is not proper, Lord."
"For that reason, form, feeling, perception, volitional activities and
consciousness, of whatever description, are merely form, feeling, perception,
volitional activities and consciousness. They are not 'mine,' not 'me,' not 'my
self.' Reflect on this as it is with wisdom. The learned, Noble Disciple, seeing
in this way, does not attach to form, feeling, perception, volitional impulses
or consciousness. He is free of those things, and has no further task to do."[47]
Before examining this scriptural reference, consider the following illustration:
Suppose we are standing on the bank of a river, watching the water flow by. The
water flows in a mostly flat area, therefore it flows very slowly. The earth in
that particular area is red, which gives this body of water a reddish tint. In
addition to this, the water passes many heavily populated areas, from where people
have long thrown in refuse, which, in addition to the industrial waste poured
into the water by a number of recently built factories, pollutes the water. The
water is therefore uninhabitable for most animals; there are not many fish in
it. Summarizing, the body of water we are looking at is reddish, dirty, polluted,
sparsely inhabited and sluggish. All of these features together are the characteristics
of this particular body of water. Some of these characteristics might be similar
to other streams or rivers, but the sum total of these characteristics is unique
to this stream of water.
Presently we are informed that this body of water
is called the Tah Wung River. Different people describe it in different ways.
Some say the Tah Wung River is dirty and doesn't have many fish. Some say the
Tah Wung River flows very slowly. Some say that the Tah Wung River is red-colored.
Standing on the river's bank, it seems to us that the body of water we are
looking at is actually complete in itself. Its attributes, such as being sluggish,
red-colored, dirty, and so on, are all caused by various conditioning factors,
such as the flowing water contacting the red earth. In addition, the water which
we are looking at is constantly flowing by. The water which we saw at first is
no longer here, and the water we are now seeing will quickly pass. Even so, the
river has its unique features, which do not change as long as the relevant conditioning
factors have not changed.
But we are told, then, that this is the Tah Wung
River. Not only that, they say that the Tah Wung River is sluggish, dirty, and
short of fish. Just looking, we can see no "Tah Wung River" other than
this body of water flowing by. We can see no "Tah Wung River" possessing
this body of water. Yet they tell us that the Tah Wung River breaks up the red
earth as it passes, which makes the water turn red. It's almost as if this "Tah
Wung River" does something to the red earth, which causes the earth to "punish"
it by turning its water red.
We can see clearly that this body of water is
subject to the process of cause and effect governed by its various conditioning
factors: the water splashing against the red earth and the red earth dissolving
into the water is one causal condition, the result of which is the red-colored
water. We can find no "body" doing anything or receiving any results.
We can see no actual Tah Wung River anywhere. The water flowing past us now flows
right on by, the water seen previously is no longer here, new water constantly
taking its place. We are able to define that body of water only by describing
its conditioning factors and the events which arise as a result, causing the features
we have observed. If there was an actual and unchanging Tah Wung River, it would
be impossible for that flow of water to proceed according to its various determining
factors. Finally we see that this "Tah Wung River" is superfluous. We
can speak about that body of water without having to bother with this "Tah
Wung River." In actual fact there is no Tah Wung River at all!
As time
goes by we travel to another district. Wishing to describe the body of water we
saw to the people there, we find ourselves at a loss. Then we recall someone telling
us that that body of water was known as the Tah Wung River. Knowing this, we can
relate our experience fluently, and the other people are able to listen with interest
and attention. We tell them that the Tah Wung River has dirty water, not many
fish, is sluggish, and red-colored.
At that time, we realize clearly that
this "Tah Wung River," and the role it plays in the events we describe,
are simply conventions of language used for convenience in communication. Whether
the convention of Tah Wung River exists or not, and whether we use it or not,
has no bearing whatsoever on the actions of that body of water. That body of water
continues to be a process of interrelated cause and effect reactions. We can clearly
distinguish between the convention and the actual condition. Now we are able to
understand and use the convention of speech with ease.
The things which we
conventionally know as people, to which we give names, and refer to as "me"
and "you," are in reality continuous and interconnected streams of events,
made up of countless related constituent factors, just like that river. They are
subject to countless factors, directed by related determinants, both from within
that stream of events and from without. When a particular reaction takes place
in a causal way, the fruit of that action arises, causing changes within the flow
of events.
The conditions which are referred to as kamma and vipaka are simply
the play of cause and effect within one particular stream of events. They are
perfectly capable of functioning within that stream without the need for the conventions
of name, or the words "me" and "you," either as owners or
perpetrators of those actions, or as receivers of their results. This is reality,[c]
which functions naturally in this way. But for convenience in communication within
the social world, we must use the convention of names, such as Mr. Smith and so
on, for particular streams of events.
Having accepted the convention, we must
accept responsibility for that stream of events, becoming the owner, the active
perpetrator and the passive subject of actions and their results, as the case
may be. But whether we use these conventions or not, whether we accept the labels
or not, the stream of events itself functions anyway, directed by cause and effect.
The important point is to be aware of things as they are, distinguishing between
the convention and the condition itself. One and the same thing, in the context
of its actual nature, is one way, but when spoken of in conventional terms it
must be referred to in another way. If we have an understanding of the actual
reality of these things we will not be deluded or confused by the conventions.
Both reality and convention are necessary. Reality (often referred to as paramattha)
is the natural state. Conventions are a useful and practical human invention.
Problems arise when we confuse the two, clinging to the reality and trying to
make it follow conventions. Within the actual reality there is no confusion, because
the principle naturally functions by itself, not being subject to anybody's ideas
about it -- it is people who become confused. And because reality is not confused,
functioning independently of people's desires, it frustrates those desires and
makes people even more confused and frustrated. Any problem occurring is purely
a human one.
As can be seen in the passage above, the bhikkhu who conceived
this doubt was confusing the description of the reality, which he had learned,
with the convention, to which he still clung. This was the cause of his bewilderment
and doubt. Referring to the original wording, it goes something like this: "If
kamma is created by not-self, what self is it that receives the fruits of kamma?"
The first part of the sentence is spoken according to his acquired knowledge of
the reality, while the second part is spoken according to his own habitual perception.
Naturally they don't fit.
From the foregoing, we can summarize thus:
"
The teachings of not-self and kamma are not at all contradictory. On the contrary,
not-self lends weight to the teaching of kamma. Because things are not-self, there
can be kamma, and kamma can function. When the process of events is operating,
all the factors involved must arise, cease and interact unhindered, so that the
stream of events can proceed. There can be no permanent or actual entity to block
this flow. If there was a self, there could be no kamma, because a self (by definition)
is not subject to cause and effect. Nothing can effect its existence, or cause
the self to be other than what it is. In the end we would have to divide the individual
into two levels, such as is held by the sassataditthi (belief in an intrinsic
self) sects, who believe that the self who creates and receives the fruits of
kamma is merely the external or superficial self, while the real self, or essence
of the self, lies unchanging within.
" The creation of kamma and its
results in the present time is done without the need for an agent or a recipient.
We should consider thus: "Which factors are operating here? What relationships
are involved? What events are arising within the stream as a result, and how are
they effecting changes within the stream?" When a cause, known as kamma,
or action, arises, there follows the result, known as vipaka, within that stream
of events. We call this "cause and effect." This process is not dependent
on an owner of those actions, or a doer and a recipient of results as an additional,
extraneous entity. Kamma is the flow of cause and effect within that stream of
events, unlike the conventions which are pasted over them.
When there is an
agreement to call that stream of events Mr. Smith or Miss Brown, there arises
an owner of actions, a doer and a recipient of results. However, the stream of
events proceeds regardless, completely perfect within itself as far as the cause
and effect process goes. It does not depend on names in order to function.
When
it is time to speak in the context of a stream of events, describing its operation,
its causes and its results, then we can so speak. When it is time to speak in
the context of conventions, describing actions and the fruits of actions in personal
terms, we can speak thus also. With right understanding, we do not confuse the
two levels.
Even with regard to inanimate objects, such as the river above,
most people still manage to cling to conventions as actual entities. How much
more so when it comes to human beings, which are more complex and intricate junctions
of causal processes, involving mental factors. As for these mental factors, they
are extremely subtle. Even impermanence is incomprehensible to many people. There
are those who say, for instance, "Who says memory is impermanent and unstable?
Memory is permanent, because wherever and whenever it arises, it is always memory,
it never changes."
Some people may agree with this line of reasoning,
but if the argument is applied to a material object the error becomes more obvious.
It is like saying, "Who says the body is impermanent? The body is permanent
and unchanging, because wherever and whenever the body arises, it is always the
body, it never changes." It is easier to see the mistake in this latter argument,
but actually both arguments are equally mistaken. That is, both confuse memory,
for instance, and the label "memory," or body and the label "body."
The arguments suggest that memory and the body are stable and unchanging, but
in fact what they are saying is that the names "memory" and "body"
are (relatively) stable and unchanging.
Studying the law of kamma solely on
the level of convention sometimes leads to a simplistic view of things, such as
believing that a certain person, having committed such-and-such kamma, on such-and-such
a day, ten years later receives such-and-such bad result. The cause and effect
process referred to jumps over a span of ten years all in one step. The total
stream of events involved is not taken into account, and so it is difficult to
see the real process involved. Studying the same case in terms of the natural
stream of events helps to see the operation of cause and effect relationships
more completely and in more detail, revealing the real significance of the results
which have arisen and how they have come about.
Suppose a certain Mr. Brown
has an argument with his neighbor and kills him. Although he goes into hiding,
eventually he is arrested and convicted. Later, even after having been freed at
the end of his prison term, Mr. Brown still experiences remorse on account of
his bad actions. He is often haunted by the image of the murder victim. His facial
features and physical bearing change, becoming agitated, fearful and depressive.
These mental states, coupled with his strong physical bearing, together cause
him to become even more violent and bad-tempered. As time goes on his physical
features take on coarse and hostile characteristics. He hides his suffering with
aggressive behavior, becoming a danger to society and to himself, unable to find
any real happiness.
In this example, we can say simply that Mr. Brown has
committed bad kamma and suffered the results of his actions. This is speaking
conventionally, and it is readily understood by most people. It is a way of communication,
facilitating the exchange of ideas, but it speaks merely of the external appearance
of things, or the grosser results of the relevant factors which are concealed
within. It does not pierce the true essence of the matter, of the interrelated
factors reacting according to the natural laws.
However, if we speak in terms
of reality, we can speak of the essence in its entirety, referring to it as a
process of events. For example, we could say that within the operation of this
set of five khandhas, a mind state based on anger arose. There followed the mental
proliferation in accord with that anger, leading to physical action. Conceiving
in this way habitually, the mind began to assume those tendencies. Physical repercussions
from external sources were experienced, adding to the unpleasant feeling, and
so on.
Speaking according to the conditions in this way, we have all the necessary
information without the need for reference to Mr. Brown or any kind of self. The
process contains in itself natural elements of various kinds arising and reacting
with each other to produce actions and reactions, without the need for a doer
or a receiver of results.
Whether speaking according to the conditions as
given here, or according to the convention as related above, the reality of the
situation is identical -- neither is deficient or more complete -- but the description
of things as a natural condition is given in terms of the natural facts, without
the appendages of conventional imagery.
In any case, even with these examples,
there may still be some doubt on the matter, so it might be helpful to conclude
with a story:
Tit Porng[d] went to visit the Venerable Abbot of the nearby
monastery. At one point, he asked:
"Eh, Luang Por, the Buddha taught that
everything is not-self, and is without an owner -- there is no-one who commits
kamma and no-one who receives its results. If that's the case, then I can go out
and hit somebody over the head or even kill them, or do anything I like, because
there is no-one committing kamma and no-one receiving its results."
No
sooner had Tit Porng finished speaking, when the Abbot's walking stick, concealed
somewhere unknown to Tit Porng, swung down like a flash. Tit Porng could hardly
get his arm up fast enough to ward off the blow. Even so, the walking stick struck
squarely in the middle of his arm, giving it a good bruise.
Clutching his
sore arm, Tit Porng said, "Luang Por! Why did you do that?" His voice
trembled with the anger that was welling up inside him.
"Oh! What's the
matter?" the Abbot asked offhandedly.
"Why, you hit me! That hurts!"
The Abbot, assuming a tone of voice usually reserved for sermons, slowly murmured:
"There is kamma but no-one creating it. There are results of kamma, but no-one
receiving them. There is feeling, but no-one experiencing it. There is pain, but
no-one in pain ... He who tries to use the law of not-self for his own selfish
purposes is not freed of self; he who clings to not-self is one who clings to
self. He does not really know not-self. He who clings to the idea that there is
no-one who creates kamma must also cling to the idea that there is one who is
in pain. He does not really know that there is no-one who creates kamma and no-one
who experiences pain."
The moral of this story is: if you want to say
"there is no-one who creates kamma," you must first learn how to stop
saying "Ouch!"
Footnotes:
a. An example of this kind of belief:
If you break down a termite mound in this life, in a future life you will inevitably
have your house broken down by those very same termites, possibly reborn as human
beings. [Back to text]
b. The five khandhas, or aggregates of existence. [Back
to text]
c. The word "reality" might seem somewhat arbitrary to those
not familiar with Buddhism. In the context of this work, we could define it more
clearly as "the natural world as distinct from human conventional appendages."
[Back to text]
d. Tit Porng: "Tit" is a Thai name for one who has
ordained as a bhikkhu for some time and later disrobed. "Luang Por,"
literally meaning Venerable Father, is a term of respect given to venerated monks.
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