In the year 563B.C. on the border of modern day Nepal and India, a son was born
to a chieftain of the Sakya clan. His name was Siddhartha Gotama and at the
age of thirty-five, he attained, after six years of struggle and through his
own insight, full enlightenment or Buddhahood. The term 'Buddha' is not a name
of a god or an incarnation of a god, despite later Hindu claims to the contrary,
but is a title for one who has realised through good conduct, mental cultivation,
and wisdom the cause of life's vicissitudes and the way to overcome them. Buddhism
is perhaps. unique amongst the world's religions in that it does not place reliance
for salvation on some external power, such as a god or even a Buddha, but places
the responsibility for life's frustrations squarely on the individual.
The Buddha said:
By oneself, indeed, is evil done; By oneself is one defiled.
By oneself is evil left undone; By oneself indeed is one purified.
Purity and impurity depend on oneself. No one purifies another.
His teaching can be summarised as:
Not to do any evil,
To cultivate good,
To purify one's mind,
This is the Teaching of the Buddhas. To many people of other faiths the term
'Buddha' conjures up ideas of idol worship and concepts, such as, that Buddhists
are atheists, such concepts being an anathema to the followers 'of the, so called
'religions of the book'. Buddhism, certainly, is very different from the Semitic
religions, but it may surprise many of its critics to know that the Buddha condemned
idolatry. When, just prior to his passing away, he was asked how he could be
remembered he replied that those who practised his teachings would remember
him best. Prior to the arrival on the Indian sub-continent of the Bactrian-Greeks,
Buddha images were unknown. The Buddha foresaw that worship of him in any form
would result in his deification with its consequent emphasis on seeking salvation
from an external power rather than identifying Nirvana, the eradication of greed
anger and delusion, as being solely within one's own power. Indeed, he was right.
For many ethnic Buddhists, he is a God from whom they ask favours. However,
Buddhists feel uncomfortable in acknowledging a Creator of the world. Buddhists
do accept that there is a transcendental state possible of realisation by each
and every one of us. We certainly do not accept the concept of an anthropomorphic
god but many Christians, Jews and Muslims would join us in such a rejection.
Buddhists, generally, are uncomfortable in using the term "God", because
there is no clear definition of to what such a term refers. Indeed, an anthropomorphic
view of God would be considered by Jews and Muslims to be idolatrous. If, as
is the case with many modern theologians, one holds the Tillichian view that
God is the "Ground of Being" - the very fact of existence - then no
Buddhist could argue with this. However, a Buddhist would be hesitant in using
the term 'God'. To a Christian, a Jew and a Muslim, this may be termed 'God',
whereas a Buddhist would use the term 'Nirvana'. I feel that we are talking
about a similar concept. Like most major religions, as time passed since the
death of its founder, different sects or schools of thought arose however the
essential teachings of the Buddha are accepted as pivotal to all schools of
Buddhism. They differ mainly on the emphasis that they place on certain aspects
of the teaching and in their interpretation of the monastic rules governing
the conduct of the clergy known as the Sangha. The Theravada school, that followed
by Buddhists from such countries as Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Laos and Cambodia,
claims to adhere strictly to the original teachings of the Buddha as contained
in the Pali scriptures and it emphasises the goal of personal salvation for
the individual follower. The Sangha of the Theravada is expected to observe
to the letter the 227 rules laid down in a collection of books called the Vinaya,
which includes such rules as eating only prior to midday and refraining from
handling money. Four of these 227 rules, if broken, entail expulsion of the
transgressor from the monastic order. They are: killing a human being, sexual
intercourse, stealing and falsely claiming supernormal powers. Should a Buddhist
monk of the Theravadin tradition come under your care, it could create a problem.
Theravadin monks are not supposed to make any physical contact with a member
of the opposite sex. This means that, preferably, male nurses should be used
where possible when caring for these monks. The Mahayana school, followed mainly
in China, Korea, Japan and Vietnam, is less rigid in its interpretation of the
Teachings and emphasises the importance of the follower's becoming a Buddha
for the salvation of all living beings. The Mahayana Sangha observes strict
vegetarianism, unlike the Theravada where vegetarianism is optional, but Mahayana
monks will eat in the evening. The post-midday meals are regarded as medicine.
Some Mahayana sects, notably in Korea and Japan, admit married priests. The
Vajrayana school, followed in Tibet and Mongolia and attracting many Western
followers, is essentially the same in its interpretation of the Teachings as
the Mahayana but it stresses the importance of the acceptance of a personal
teacher who initiates his followers into, so-called, secret teachings known
as Tantra. Neither the Theravada nor the mainstream Mahayana schools accept
that there are such things as 'secret teachings' in Buddhism. The central teaching
of all schools of Buddhism is grounded in the "Four Noble Truths".
The first truth is that life is subject to Dukkha. Dukkha is often translated
as 'suffering' but it is much more than that. It certainly means physical and
mental suffering but it also means that life is full of frustrations - we would
always prefer things to be other than the way they are. As we grow old, we wish
we could remain young. If we are poor, we wish we could be rich. When we are
separated from our friends and loved ones, we are saddened. Dukkha is birth
sickness, old age, pain and despair, separation from those whom we like and
association with those whom we dislike. All of these are examples of Dukkha
and that is the First Noble Truth. The Second Noble Truth states that the Cause
of Dukkha can be attributed to three things - greed, anger and a deluded mind.
We tend to be attached to people and material things and when we are separated
from them, we suffer regret. We cling to these things as if they will last forever
and we find it hard to accept the fact that they don't. We get angry or have
aversions to those things that we do not like. Buddhism teaches that anger harms
the one who is angry more than the object to which this anger is directed. Anger
causes heating of the blood and an unpleasant appearance. The more we get angry
with someone and they react to our anger the more this anger increases. Anger
is unproductive - it doesn't solve the problem. Our minds are deluded because
we do not see things as they really are - that is, subject to impermanence,
frustrating and devoid of a permanent self or substance. Everything, material
or immaterial, is subject to change or impermanence. Perhaps you are sitting
comfortably in your chair listening to me. If you remain in that chair for the
next three hours, without moving, do you still think you could regard the chair
as comfortable? Believe me, I do not intend to keep you here for the next three
hours. If you remained fixed in that chair for a month, you would probably find
that you are crippled and unable to move. Instead of being a health carer, you
will probably become a patient. If you remain in that chair for a hundred years,
you will probably be a skeleton and the chair will be fairly seedy too. Professor
Lewis Lancaster, from UCLA, relates that, when visiting Australia, and getting
on the aircraft in Los Angeles he was sitting in a very comfortable seat. After
sixteen hours non-stop flight he realised the truth of impermanence. He could
not wait to get away from that seat. What starts as being regarded as 'comfortable'
can soon change to being uncomfortable. Everything is relative. The way we see
things depends on the time, place and current situation. We, ourselves, are
subject to this change. Every cell in our body is constantly ageing and dying
and being replaced. Our thoughts and ideas are constantly changing or being
modified. Your thoughts and ideas, since you came to this chapel, are different.
They have changed considerably. Is there anything in you which is not subject
to change? This is why Buddhists say, in the ultimate sense, there is no 'you'
or unchanging self entity. This change and this "no self' is difficult
to accept and is, therefore, Dukkha. The third Noble Truth concerns the overcoming
of Dukkha, that is, overcoming the greed anger and delusion that are the source
of Dukkha. Accepting change as a characteristic of life and not becoming angry
or frustrated about it is part of the way to overcoming Dukkha. The overcoming
of Dukkha is termed "Nirvana". Nirvana is not a place but a state
of mind - a mind that sees things as they really are and not clouded by delusion.
The Fourth Noble Truth is the method taught by the Buddha for attaining the
state of Nirvana. It is known as the Noble Eightfold Path. You may be wondering
why the term 'Noble' is used for the Path. One who walks the Path is considered
to be a noble person. The eight steps of the Path are: Right Understanding,
that is knowledge that the Four Noble Truths lead to the overcoming of Dukkha.
It does not imply a total understanding of these Truths but a confidence that,
by following the Path, the result will be attained. Right Thought is to be constantly
aware of one's thoughts and actions and thereby avoid harm to any living creature.
Right Speech is awareness of one's speech so that, what one says, is beneficial
to the hearer. Right Action is to be aware of one's actions and observe the
five precepts so that one does not cause harm to oneself or any other living
creature. The five precepts are: To undertake the training to avoid taking the
life of beings. This precept applies to all living beings not just to humans.
All beings have a right to their lives and that right should be respected. This
would include the unborn, so abortion is not an acceptable alternative for controlling
the population, however, contraception is not an issue as far as Buddhists are
concerned. Its corollary is to protect and respect the life of all beings. To
undertake the training to avoid taking things not given. This precept goes further
than mere stealing. One should avoid taking anything unless one can be sure
that is intended for you. Its corollary is to cultivate generosity. This has
the added bonus of eradicating attachment. To undertake the training to avoid
sensual misconduct. This precept is often mistranslated or misinterpreted as
relating only to sexual misconduct but it covers any overindulgence in any sensual
pleasure such as gluttony as well as misconduct of a sexual nature. A Buddhist
should be mindful of the possible effects on themselves and on others of improper
sexual activity. This precept would include adultery because this also breaches
the precept of not taking what is not freely given. A relationship with someone
who is committed to another is stealing. Similarly in cases of rape and child
abuse, one is stealing the dignity and self respect of another. One is also
the cause of mental pain, not to mention physical pain so one is causing harm
to another living being. Therefore, such behavior is breaking several precepts.
Its corollary is to respect the dignity and rights of all beings - to treat
each female as your own sister or mother and each male as your brother or father.
To undertake the training to refrain from false speech. As well as avoiding
lying and deceiving, this precept covers slander as well as speech which is
not beneficial to the welfare of others. Its corollary is to become trustworthy
and considerate. To undertake the training to abstain from substances which
cause intoxication and heedlessness. This precept is in a special category as
it does not infer any intrinsic evil in, say, alcohol itself, but indulgence
in such a substance could be the cause of breaking the other four precepts.
Its corollary is to develop clear thinking and an alert mind. These are the
basic precepts expected as a day to day training of any lay Buddhist. Right
Livelihood is to earn one's living in a way that does not cause harm or suffering.
Such occupations as the selling of intoxicants, firearms or animals for slaughter
would be considered inappropriate for Buddhists. Right Effort is the avoiding
of evil which has not already arisen, rejecting evil which has already arisen,
the acquiring of wholesome things which have not yet been acquired and the stabilising
of those wholesome characteristics that have already been acquired. Right Mindfulness
is training in constant awareness of the effects of one's actions, whether of
body, speech or mind, and thus avoiding harmful actions. Right Concentration
is cultivating the mind through concentration and meditation so that one attains
intuitive insight or highest wisdom. Most Buddhists believe that, upon the dissolution
of the body, rebirth may take place in a state consistent with the qualities
of the consciousness energy, or resultant of past actions, known as karma, at
the time of death. This rebirth may occur in human form, animal form, as a ghost,
in a blissful state or in a woeful state. Each of these states is impermanent
and lasts as long as the karmic energy, which was the cause of that rebirth,
sustains it. In other words, we are subject to a constant round of rebirths
until Nirvana, or the release from rebirth is attained. The Theravada tradition
believes that rebirth is instantaneous upon the death of the individual, whereas
the Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions believe in an intermediate state, known
as antarabhava, which can last until the right conditions for rebirth prevail.
What is more important for the dying patient than ceremonies after death, is
the care received in the days leading up to their passing. Every effort should
be made to direct their thoughts to the positive aspects of their lives. This
is where a visit from a member of the Buddhist clergy can be beneficial., however
chaplains and nursing staff, being aware of the importance of positive thoughts,
can also be helpful in this regard. Buddhists believe that the final thoughts
of a being are crucial in determining their state of rebirth. With patients
from a Chinese background, it is common for a group of lay Buddhists to visit
and chant the name of the Buddha of Infinite Light, Amitabha. The Amitabha Buddhist
Association in New South Wales provides such a service. Another useful device
is the chanting machine which can be placed close to the patient so that they
are constantly aware of the name of Buddha Amitabha. I have used this with a
patient in a coma by placing the machine under their pillow so that, should
they regain consciousness, this will be the first thing that they hear. Hearing
this chant can contribute to relieving the patient's anxiety and also direct
their thoughts positively. It is very important to be aware of the ethnic background
of the patient. This chanting has relevance only to patients of Chinese background.
For patients from other ethnic groups, it is advisable to contact the appropriate
Buddhist clergy. Following the death of a patient, from the Theravadin or Southern
School, rebirth occurs at the instant of death. The clergy can comfort the family
and arrange to attend the funeral for blessing chanting. Many Theravadins will
willingly offer the body of the deceased for organ transplants. This is due
to the belief that the energy of the deceased has completely passed on and the
body serves no further purpose for the deceased. However, the position concerning
the Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions is quite different. As I have alredy mentioned,
they accept an intermediate or limbo state before rebirth takes place. Preferably,
they prefer that the body not be touched for forty eight hours following the
death. It is held that the consciousness energy may not leave the body until
this time period has passed. This may seem impractical in a hospital situation
but touching or moving the body during this critical period is a cause of much
concern, especially to the immediate family. The majority of Mahayana Buddhists
would, therefore, prefer that their relatives pass away at home. Three conditions
are necessary for conception in the womb of either a human or animal to occur,
that is, male sperm, female ovum and the karmic energy that has passed over
from the previous incarnation. Karma is not a reward or punishment for past
actions but rather a natural result or outcome of them. Buddhists do not accept
the concept of a creator god who sits in judgement on his creation. We are our
own creator by our past actions. The Law of Karma states "We are what we
have done and we will be what we are now doing". On a popular level as
taught in institutionalised Buddhism, whenever misfortune or happiness befalls
us, it is due to our past karma. This tends to imply a punisher or rewarder,
in other words a judging god, an idea which Buddhists reject. That is why many
modern Buddhist scholars interpret Karma as a psychological phenomenon. Bad
actions cause remorse, regrets and feelings of guilt which disturb our peace
of mind, whereas good actions bring joy and happiness and peace of mind. Buddhists
of all schools regularly perform the action of 'Taking Refuge'. A refuge is
a shelter or safe haven and similarly, in Buddhism, taking refuge is considered
to be a protection. The refuges are:- The Buddha - the teacher, is referred
to in the scriptures as "Teacher of gods and men". The Dharma - his
teaching. Before the Buddha passed away, he told Ananda, his chief disciple,
that after his passing, the Dharma would be the teacher. The Sangha - is the
community of followers. More specifically, it refers to those who have left
home to follow the spiritual life, the Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunis or Buddhist clergy.
In the broader sense, it includes those who are following his teachings whether
they be monastic or lay. The initial recitation of the "Three Refuges",
before a member of the monastic Sangha, constitutes formally becoming a Buddhist.
In the Tibetan tradition, an additional refuge is added, that of taking refuge
in the teacher, who initiates the student. Another important devotional practice
is the recitation of the five precepts, known as the 'Panca Sila'. These are
training rules and, unlike, say, the Ten Commandments in Christianity, they
are not based on fear and feelings of guilt. A Buddhist should undertake training
to try to observe these precepts but, if a precept should be broken, one should
analyse one's action and try to avoid breaking it in the future. This is not
to suggest that the consequences of this unwholesome action or Karma will be
avoided - the admonition in the Christian Bible, "as ye sow, so shall ye
also reap" applies to Buddhists as well as to Christians. The emphasis
in Buddhism is to train one's self-awareness of one's actions and their effects
on both one's self and others and to avoid unwholesome actions and cultivate
beneficial ones. Other important devotional practices are the chanting of sutras
or sermons of the Buddha or other great Buddhist teachers, prostrations before
a Buddha image, and, most importantly, practising meditation. The chanting of
sutras is often, mistakenly, referred to as Buddhist prayers. Buddhists do not
pray to a god, however, Buddhists from the Mahayana tradition will sometimes
pray to Bodhisattvas for assistance and blessings. Prostrations are considered
a means of paying respect to the teacher in a similar way to people respecting
those who have passed away by placing flowers on a grave. Prostrations also
are a means of cultivating humility. The Buddha condemned 'rites and rituals'
as being useless and not conducive to salvation. The practice of prostrating
before images is more a part of institutionalised Buddhism rather than being
a part of the Teaching itself. Meditation is a central part of Buddhist practice.
In the Theravadin tradition, two forms of meditation, calm or Samatha and insight
or Vipassana are recognised as essential practice in achieving spiritual progress.
Calming the mind is achieved by concentration on a specific object and excluding
all extraneous thoughts. Often, the breath or the movement of the diaphragm
is used as a suitable object for concentration. At other times meditation beads
or even counting the breaths are used to fix the mind during this preliminary
practice. Once the mind has been trained in concentration, the meditator can
then reflect on the feelings and sensations of the body, noting them as they
arise and pass away. This latter practice is known as Vipassana and is the means
of cultivating insight or mindfulness.
In the Cha'n or Zen tradition, two techniques are employed. One method is to
concentrate on the breath and then try to clear the mind of all thoughts whatsoever.
This method eliminates the constant chatter of the mind and results in an awakening.
Another Cha'an technique is to ponder a question which has no rational answer.
Typical koans are, "what was your face before you were born?" "what
is the sound of one hand clapping?" or the word "Mu". These techniques
are aimed at pushing the mind beyond rational thought in order to experience
the ultimate awakening. A technique used by the Pure Land Sect of the Mahayana
is to constantly recite the name of the Buddha of infinite light, Amitabha Buddha
called Omi t'o-Fo in Chinese. This, again, is a means of fixing the mind on
one object and not dissimilar to repetitions of prayers used by many Christians
or mantras used by Tibetan Buddhists. The result is a calmed mind, and, according
to Pure Land Buddhism, rebirth in the Pure Land where enlightenment may be attained
by listening to the teaching of Buddha Amitabha. It should be noted that the
Pure Land is not some form of heaven. When the mind is pure, one is already
in the Pure Land. Likewise with Amitabha Buddha. All Buddhas and Bodhisattvas,
being the essence of an awakened mind, are a constituent of mind. Before I conclude,
I should mention diet. Most Buddhists do not observe any dietary restrictions
apart from those strictly following the Mahayana tradition. The eating of meat
or fish is not acceptable to strict Mahayana followers. Usually, they also avoid
eating food prepared with onions or garlic which, it is believed, arouse the
senses.
The foregoing is by no means a comprehensive introduction to the teachings of
the Buddha and such a short introduction can hardly do the teaching justice,
however I hope that it gives you a better understanding of those patients in
your care who claim Buddhism as their religious faith.