What is meant by the Buddhist theory of "Duhka"?
What are the three
marks of existence?
How can pleasure be suffering?
What are the causes
of suffering?
How can one get out of suffering?
How do Buddhist methods
of attaining freedom from suffering
differ from those of other religious traditions?
Describe
the ideals of the Arahat and the Bodhisattva.
How do they compare with the
ideal of the Yogi?
What are the differences between
the Eight-Fold Path
of the Arahat and
the Six Paramitas of the Bodhisattva?
Eastern Philosophy
Donna Chapman
April 27, 2000
What
is meant by the Buddhist theory of "Duhka"? What are the three marks
of
existence? How can pleasure be suffering? What are the causes of suffering?
How can one get out of suffering? How do Buddhist methods of attaining freedom
from suffering differ from those of other religious traditions?
Describe
the ideals of the Arahat and the Bodhisattva. How do they compare with the
ideal
of the Yogi? What are the differences between the Eight-Fold Path of the Arahat
and the Six Paramitas of the Bodhisattva?
I
chose to merge question 2 and question 12 because during my research for question
2 I found that in order to give a thorough explanation of it, a great deal of
background information would need to be covered. The nature and form of this background
information in turn would serve to answer question 12. So, here I go...
When
asked for the answer to life, the universe and everything1 , the Buddha distilled
all of the goods and ills of life into 4 Noble Truths. The first Noble Truth is
"Duhka". Duhka is usually translated as "suffering" but that
would be too easy. Duhka is a word which represents all of the imbalances, unfulfillments,
discomforts, dissatisfactions, insecurities, hopes, fears, loves, and excitements
of life. I think I like the word discomfort better than suffering, so for the
rest of this paper, that is the word that I will use. Life is discomfort. It's
like the fairy tale of the Princess and the Pea. There is always something not
quite right, we are never truly happy. There is always some little underlying
element, a subtle un-namable ache in the background of everything we do and everything
we see and everything we feel that is uncomfortable. We are born, we get sick,
we break down in old age, and we die. We are bound or obligated to people, places
and things that we don't like. Who can honestly say that they like their boss?
And, remember, the divorce rate is 50%. We are separated from our loved ones.
We love with the excitement and wonder of a child, and we mourn the loss of love
as we would mourn the loss of one of our parents in death.
Existence is discomfort.
Existence is also an illusion. It is the construct that consciousness creates
around and about the process that goes on day in and day out in every living creature
beginning at birth and ending at death. Buddha broke this "process"
down into 5 aggregates (skandas): body, sensation, perceptions, thoughts, and
consciousness. Imbalance and discomfort (duhka) are attached to each. Body, Rupa,
represents material existence. We are born, we die, this is the mechanism of the
functioning of our body. Sensations, Vedana, represents internal and external
sense experience in the form of feelings and sense data. For example, the warmth
of the sun. Perceptions, Sanja, represents the recognition of external and internal
objects for example: a lovely shade of blue, a beautifully framed piece of artwork.
Thoughts, Samskaras, are mental states. Buddha called them "subjective differentiations".
This aggregate also includes the will, attention, wisdom, compassion and all of
the other varied types of mental activity. Consciousness, Vijnana, this is the
shell between true awareness and the world.
There are three primary characteristics
of existence. They are: Impermanence, No Ego-Self, and Discomfort. Impermanence,
Anitya, concerns the nature of the process. Since everything is in process, then
everything is in the process of becoming something else. Nothing is static. Everything
is in a state of flux. No Ego-Self, Anatman, means that there is no soul, no individual
identity, perhaps better stated in the logical form of "not I". Any
sense of self is a construct by consciousness based on the input from the other
skandas and from itself. How often have we been "our own worst enemy?"
Discomfort, Duhka, all experience is tainted by discomfort, or imbalance or insecurity
because it is rooted in the illusion of ego-self. As I mentioned earlier, nothing
is ever "quite right" and we are never completely happy about anything.
The second Noble Truth is "Tanha" , is often called "desire",
but again that would be too easy, the word that the Buddha uses is craving. The
want that drives and often supersedes logic and reason and sensibility. This is
the concept that allows us to bury the "I" in all of our motives so
deeply into our intentions that we actually convince ourselves that we are doing
something unselfishly.
Discomfort is irrevocably bound to each of the skandas.
If I reexamine the skandas, with the added meaning of the characteristics of existence
and the second Noble Truth, the true implication of the first Noble Truth is proved
out. Body, we are born in pain, we usually die in pain, and sometimes we live
in pain too. If my body wants food, it is in discomfort. I want to eat and can't
think of much of anything else. Being hungry seems to be the most important thing
in the universe. If I eat too much I am in discomfort, but I just had to have
that second piece of cheese cake. (sigh) Sensations, I like the feeling of the
sun on my back. Warm, relaxing, oh, and that suntan. If I could just get the perfect
tan. Then, a few hours later I more closely resemble a lobster. Believe me, I
am in discomfort! Perceptions, a lovely shade of blue, which is in the fabric
of a dress that I can't afford to buy right now, a beautifully framed piece of
artwork, painted by someone who is a much better artist than I. I wish I could
paint like that. Thoughts, I think he likes me. BUT what if he doesn't? I'll just
die if he doesn't like me. Consciousness creates the notion of "me".
and then tells me I need something, tells me that I am my job, that if my job
doesn't go well, then I am a worthless human being, a failure. What will people
think of me if I don't have a boyfriend? I don't/won't fit in. No one will ever
love me if I don't have that tan, or lose 10lbs.
"the Vijnana is originated
by ignorance, deed and desire, and keeps up its
function by grasping objects
by means of the sense-organs, such as the eye etc.,
and by clinging to them
as real;.....the Vijnana..is like a monkey which is always
restless, like
a fly which is ever in search of unclean things and defiled places,
like a
fire which is never satisfied.2
So, existence is discomfort, every last bit
of it. It is discomfort because of desire, and desire gets it's drive, intent
and focus from "I" the ego-self. The very instant that "I want"
becomes part of the equation, the race is on, and the mechanism of impermanence,
with all the despair that it carries with it, begins to function. Even the simplest
pleasures are discomfort because sooner or later...they end. You can have the
most wonderful sexual experience, but it will never match the feelings of the
first. People spend their whole lives chasing the "first" feeling. Many
drug addicts report that the major drive of their addiction is that "first
feeling". How about this: you're single. You meet someone at a bar, at a
party, whatever. The sparks fly for you. Everything clicks. You decide to go home
together. You have the most wonderful sexual experience, true physical harmony,
"Zen sex" the big "O" happens, the guy goes to sleep, and
the woman lays there thinking...."so now what?" or worse...."what
was I thinking?" ....or even worse: "what have I done?" If that's
not discomfort out of pleasure I don't know what is. But this is a simple and
exaggerated example. The true nature of duhka in pleasure is often so subtle and
buried under the ego-self that we aren't even aware of that it is happening.
The
third Noble Truth, and fourth Noble Truth are best approached together. The third
Noble Truth is: Nirvana, Discomfort can stop. The fourth Noble Truth is an instruction
set from the Buddha: the 8-fold Path, Aryia-Astanga-Marga. The cessation of discomfort
is accomplished by removing craving, and by disengaging from the process of becoming.
In simpler terms, by truly stripping away the ego-self. The only way to remove
craving/desire is to remove the ever present "I". When the "I"
is removed, the race loses all import and the runner stops. In fact, there is
no more runner at all, there just simply IS. The Buddhist methodology for attaining
Nirvana is actually split into two possible paths. In order to better understand
them, we need to briefly take a look at their origins and their concepts of enlightenment.
Buddhism
features many forms of practice, but the two dominant ones are Theravada and Mahayana.
Both of them adhere to the 4 Noble Truths, however their points of view and methodology
for attaining Nirvana differ significantly.
Theravada Buddhism
After the
final liberation (death) of the Buddha, his 500 living disciples convened the
First Great Council of the Thera's. They were all Arahats - fully enlightened
beings. The focus of Theravada Buddhism (here on to be known as TVB) is the enlightenment
of the individual through the use of ascetic means such as self sacrifice, and
the monastic way of life. The state of Arahat for the TVB is a purely private
(selfish?) experience. Of yourself, for yourself, by yourself. Because of its
ascetic nature, TVB is best suited to individuals who are in the luxurious position
of being able to renounce the worldly life, for example, someone who is retired
and whose children are grown. The ascetic nature of TVB is best manifest in the
8-Fold Path. The 8-Fold Path is the methodology used by TVB to cause the cessation
of desire. It is an elaborate list shoulds and should nots, and of stuff you give
up (abstentions). The 8-Fold Path appears on the surface to be benevolent, but
this is true only in a benign sort of way. The locus of the Path is MY enlightenment.
All directed actions in the Path are to this end.
The 8-fold Path (Aryia-Astanga-Marga)
Preliminary
step: Right Association: If you wish to succeed, hang out with people who have
the same goals that you do. We are heavily influenced and even taught by our
fellows.
The more contact we have with people ahead of us on the path, the more likely
we
are to succeed on our own path.
1. Right Views, Samyagdristi: The Buddha knew
that until a person's rational mind was satisfied, a person could not proceed
forward on the Path with any commitment and clarity. Here we are urged to examine
what life's problem really is. This step assumes that: we already know the difference
between good/evil, we accept that Nirvana is possible, we accept that the cause
of suffering is desire, and we do not accept any other view about the world. In
a nutshell this is the Buddhist Act of Faith: We believe in the 4 Noble Truths.
2.
Right Intent, samyaksamkalpa: Here we are urged to commit our whole heart to what
we really want. We resolve to have a mind: free from worldly attachments, free
from ill-will to anyone, free from intent to cause harm to anyone. We resolve
this because we understand that karma is produced by intentions, not by actions.
3.
Right Speech, Samyagvak: We begin an examination of self, beginning with our choices
of and usage of words, and what they reveal about us. We refrain from: lying,
slanderous statements, unkind language, and gossip. And when we do catch ourselves
slipping, we examine why we did it.
4. Right Conduct, Samyakkarmanta: We continue
our self examination looking at our behavior. We do not kill, steal, engage in
self indulgent sex, lie, or drink intoxicants. For the TVB monk, to "not
engage in self indulgent sex" means a vow of celibacy.
5. Right Livelihood,
Samyagajiva: With the understanding that The Way is not easy, it would be conducive
to success if our chosen line of work at the very least does not conflict with
our devotional path. If our chosen work could actually be in harmony with our
path, what a bonus! We don't want a living that takes advantage of others, (pandering,
slavery) or hurts others - even indirectly (arms dealer, poisonous chemical dealer,
or even liquor store owner). We must have no ego involvement with our livelihood.
"It is life's means, not life's end".3
6. Right Effort, Samyagvyayama:
For this to work we can't just "wanna", we must apply ourselves. We
must curb the will with diligence and discipline. We will try with all our energy
to: avoid harmful or destructive thoughts, avoid grasping and holding on to them
when they do pop up, and we will develop and maintain good qualities of mind to
take the place of the harmful ones. The focus is on slow steady progress rather
than a quick finish.
7. Right Mindfulness, Samyaksmriti: Recollection. We must
put effort into understanding the true nature of the 5 aggregates (skandas) of
life, to see them for what they really are, (illusions in process) and detach
from them. We sever the bond of ego identification with body, sensation, perceptions,
thoughts, and consciousness. An easy exercise to this end is to refer to ourselves
in the second person. Saying "she is hungry" rather than "I am
hungry." Here we are urged to rise into awareness every action taken, and
every content that appears in our consciousness. Ever mindful of our intent and
motive.
"We should witness all things non-reactively, especially our
moods and emotions,
neither condemning some nor holding on to others.....The
Buddha saw ignorance,
not sin, as the offender....insofar as sin is our fault,
it is prompted by a more
fundamental ignorance...the ignorance of our true
nature."4
8. Right Concentration, Samyaksamadhi: This is the Buddhist
equivalent of Raja yoga. We approach the moment of samadhi - singleness of mind.
Here the chains of thought are broken, and the ego strips away from thought. This
is the point of spontaneous change, the instantaneous viewing of the world in
a completely new way. The mind IS. Which is the minds true and natural condition.
Results:
Nirvana through detachment
"The ideal of the arahat is a perfected disciple,
who, wandering like the
lone rhinoceros strides out alone for Nirvana, and
with prodigious
concentration proceeds unswervingly toward that goal."5
The ideal of the Arahats life is one of autonomy from the world through the
practice of the 8-Fold Path. She walks within it, does not violate it, but is
independent of it. Her autonomy will be complete at her final liberation. (death)
Mahayana
Buddhism
In spite of enlightenment, (and in the fashion of true human nature,)
about 100 years after Buddha, differences of opinion begin to surface regarding
the interpretation of the Buddha's words, and the application of them to daily
life. Out of this dissension sprung the Mahasanghikas, the fore-runners of second
dominant form of Buddhist practice: Mahayana Buddhism (here on to be known as
MB). A major point of difference between TVB and MB is that MB believes that everyone
has the Buddha Nature (Buddha Mind) within, and that anyone and everyone can attain
enlightenment by accessing it in this lifetime, instantaneously. We don't even
need to be Buddhist! Jesus Christ had attained enlightenment. Another distinguishing
characteristic of MB is the "Bodhisattva", the enlightened being. The
Bodhisattva combines compassion with wisdom and the state of enlightenment occurs
through the practice of the 6-Perfections. (Paramitas) Instead of being a list
of shoulds/should nots and abstentions the 6-Perfections are positive affirmations
for a life of true benevolence and compassion. In the 6-Perfections, we see committed
activity for the wellbeing and betterment of others, with a true separation from
ego-identity. In the 6-Perfections we are entoned to perform truly self-less acts,
and ideals are given for dealing with worldly life, the worldly mind and the worldly
journey.
The 6-Perfections (6-Paramitas) there is an external and an internal
practice for each Perfection
1. Charity, Dana: Love and Compassion. Here we
are enjoined to help others. This is the perfection which originates the Bodhisattva
self yielding hope of Nirvana. The highest point: to devote ourselves to helping
others achieve nirvana with no thought of our own. For the person in beginning
practice, the external application of this perfection is this: If we have any
insight at all into the discomfort of the world, we will naturally want to help
others who are in discomfort. We will naturally engage in selfless giving, and
give anonymous gifts with a pure motive. The internal application of this perfection
is this: we practice endless mental tolerance of others, patience, sympathy and
understanding.
2. Good Behavior, Sila: Live a moral life. Externally this is:
be humble, behave ourselves, we give of ourselves, we use restraint. Internally:
We are capable of spontaneous effortless action because there is no good or evil,
there is just the right thing to do. Our nature already knows this and needs no
label for it. And besides, there is no us anyway, so there is no ego attachment.
3.
Energy, Virya: Zeal, earnestness. Externally: we exercise self-control in every
area of our lives. Internally: We are 100% present in every aspect of our lives.
Fully involved. Fully committed.
4. Patience, Ksanti: Patience and tolerance.
Externally: patience with the impermanence of one's circumstances. Knowing the
bad and the good are transitory. Being patient and focused to walk through all
of it. Internally: Patience with yourself. Rome wasn't build in a day, so we take
it easy and are merciful with ourselves.
5. Thoughtfulness, Dhyana: Meditation.
Externally: be aware of what we do. Everything is intentional. Internal: Contemplate
until logic fades away, and the intuitive spiritual mind becomes aware and active
unto Samadhi: transcendental perfection.
6. Wisdom, Prajna: Insight. External:
we express ourselves, we philosophize, we get educated, then we use it in our
daily life. Internal: we become united with the all inclusive truth: compassion.
Move into a state of complete freedom and spiritual strength.
The ideal of
the Boddhisattva is that she tastes the joy of true Nirvana, but vows to stay
fully involved in the world until everyone has become enlightened. MB is a system
of action and interaction with others. MB has become known as Buddhism for the
common man. It is for the person who has worldly responsibilities to family, employer,
and friends. In this way there is a path to enlightenment for everyone.
"The
goal of Mahayana Buddhism enlightenment is to awaken the Buddha within
for
the benefit of all mankind."6
In the past two sections I have mentioned
the ideal of the Arahat and the ideal of the Bodhisattva. It would do well to
mention the ideal of the Yogi here. Hindus use yoga practice as the path to enlightenment.
There is much diversity in the form the yoga takes so that based on lifestyle
or personality, everyone can find a path to enlightenment. Yogis are people who
have attained enlightenment through the use of one or more yogas, and they teach
others. There are many different types of Yogi teaching many different types of
yoga. In TVB and MB there is not much room for diversity in the following of the
8-fold Path, or the 6-Paramitas. The Buddha had an analytical mind, and certainly
in the case of the 8-Fold Path, he has spelled out the steps thoroughly and completely.
But in the practice of both the 8-Fold Path and the 6-Perfections, our nature
inherently knows the proper thing to do, so there is only one Way. The ego-self
must be disconnected from the world.
When I approached this paper, I was confident
that I would find threads of the 8-Fold Path and the 6-Perfections in western
religion. I was sure that there would be clear cut applications. Either one or
the other. However I was wrong! There are varied and diverse applications from
the 8-Fold Path and the 6-Perfections. I was thinking about my personal experience
during worship at the church that I choose to attend. I had a moment of Satori
(I know, wrong paper) wherein I realized that what I truly experience during these
times are brief moments of Samadhi.
It is not that I am in the presence of
God, or that God is inside me. It is that there is no me, but only the abundant,
overwhelming, profound awareness of God. Not in me, but in me. Not external to
me, but external to me. I share this as a moment of catharsis. I was really surprised,
and I dare not tell the pastor of my church this, he'd probably either eject me,
or have me exorcised! (just kidding on that stuff, but he would most certainly
disapprove.)
I was raised Roman Catholic, so I will use this perspective for
one point of analysis. I also have intimate knowledge of the 12 Step Program of
Alcoholics Anonymous, and will use this as another point of analysis. I think
these represent a pretty broad sampling of Western religion.
The Catholic Church
has always had a tradition of asceticism and self sacrifice, although in the last
25 years or so this has become a less dominant view. The church agrees that life
is discomfort, but they like the word suffering so I'll use that word here. According
to the church we suffer through life because of guilt. This guilt is because of
our individual sins as well as the corporate sin of all of mankind. This is an
attempt to keep people in a mode of humility and repentance. Self discipline and
self denial have long been a strong suit of the church. Long ago ego identification
with "fleshly" desires associated with body, perception, thought, and
consciousness were broken through the process of self flagellation. Modern Catholics
rely on the process of Confession and Absolution from a priest for emotional reassurance
and reinforcement of the ideal.
The ideal is: believe in the church, do good
works, go to heaven when you die. Oh, and life is hard and you deserve it. The
ritual of Confession is pretty much exclusive to the Catholic Church. The origin
of "Confession" is a scripture which says:
"And when you stand
praying, if you hold anything against anyone, forgive him
so that your Father
in heaven may forgive you your sins."7
Other translations offer this
verse in words more like...if there is anything between you and your brother,
go to him, settle it, then come back to Me and I can forgive you. What it means
is: burn your karma NOW. Don't wait, and certainly don't die with it on your heart.
It also entones compassion and mercy, for to forgive a wrong done to us requires
mercy. The actual practice of this verse has been evolved into the ritual of speaking
to the priest, saying all of your wrongs, and then the priest "gives absolution"
that means he forgives you all your sins on behalf of Christ. I don't think that
this is what Christ intended. I think Christ intended for us to go to each other
and be honest, however there is still a good side of the adulteration of biblical
intent....the act of going to priest and confessing your sins is a very humbling
experience. In the old days you went into a dark little room, and the priest couldn't
see your face, modern Catholics sit in a pew in the church with the priest and
the whole ritual is more like a conversation. Living a life of humility is a strong
thread in both the 8-Fold Path and the 6-Perfections.
True recovery from alcohol
or drug addiction is possible through the practice of the 12 Steps of the program
of Alcoholics Anonymous. It has been very trendy of late to be in "the program".
But few actually practice it. And most uninvolved people don't have a clue about
how it works. Alcoholics suffer from ego-identification,
"the idea that
someday he will control and enjoy his drinking is the obsession of every
abnormal
drinker."8
Self knowledge is not enough, a moment of Samadhi is required...
"but
the actual or potential alcoholic with hardly an exception will be absolutely
unable
to stop drinking on the basis of self knowledge."
One of the
first things that newly recovered people usually need to do is sever ties with
"lesser fellows" and establish ties with others on the same path. (Right
Association) Sometimes pre-recovery relationships survive, but most long term
recovery is attained by hanging out with other alcoholics. We share our experience,
strength and hope with each other. We hold each other up when the seas of life
are stormy and we think we might drown. (drink again) Those of us who are blessed
with years of recovery serve the new ones as lamps on the path ahead.
The
binding of the ego-self to the world must be broken: (Right Mindfulness)
"Any
life run on self will can hardly be a success"9
"Is he not really
a self seeker even when trying to be kind?...
Is he not even in his best moments
a producer of confusion rather than harmony?"10
We are often our own
worst enemy, (characteristics of existence)
"Our troubles, we think, are
basically of our own making."11
Recovery is Samadhi (Right Concentration)
"They
appear to be in the nature of huge emotional displacements and
rearrangements.
Ideas, emotions, and attitudes which were once the guiding
forces in the lives
of these people are suddenly cast to one side and a completely
new set of
conceptions and motives begin to dominate them."12
We facilitate this
Samadhi by engaging in a thorough self examination. (Right Speech, Right Mindfulness,
Right Intent) We are painstaking in our approach to analyze our actions, speech,
thoughts and motives. After this thorough examination we begin the process of
making amends, humbling ourselves to those we have harmed. (But only if this action
does not cause more pain, we have caused enough of that in our friends and families
lives.) We burn our karma in this lifetime. Once again...living a life of humility
is a strong thread in both the 8-Fold Path and the 6-Perfections.
We come to
rely on our intuition. (Thoughtfulness, 5th Perfection)
"What used to
be the hunch or the occasional inspiration gradually becomes a
working part
of the mind."13
"We have entered the world of the spirit, Our next
function is to grow in
understanding and effectiveness."14
We are
easy on ourselves (Patience, 4th Perfection)
"We relax and take it easy,
we don't struggle."15
"We claim spiritual progress rather than spiritual
perfection."16
We tolerate others (Charity, 1st Perfection)
"Love
and tolerance is our code, we have ceased fighting anyone or anything"17
Truly recovered alcoholics are similar in intent to the Bodhisattva. They
live to pass on what they have. They have come from hell back to life, and they
live to help other sick, wounded people to achieve the same joi de vive that they
have. (Charity, 1st Perfection)
"to be vital, faith must be accompanied
by self sacrifice and unselfish
constructive action."18
I was surprised
to see so much Buddhism in AA. I am surprised to see so much Buddhism in Judeo
Christian tradition. I am sorry to see that so much of the value and wonder of
Eastern religious elements in Judeo Christian tradition has been so adulterated,
truncated and buried. At the end of this paper I am still convinced that the answer,
to Life the Universe and Everything lies in assembling the whole puzzle of the
ages. Assembling the puzzle pieces from the ancient religions and the ancient
philosophies. I think the resulting picture would be a marvelous landscape of
Spirit. But I wonder...
The Buddha advocated a "return to simplicity"
but there never seems to be any recorded time when man lived simply, where there
was a time of peace and harmony. (except of course, the Garden of Eden in the
Bible) I wonder if this has always been man's Ideal...to be something we have
never been. Truly good and loving, and truly compassionate and kind, and truly
self-less.
I wonder.....
Bibliography
The Spiritual Seekers Guide, .................................................................Steven S. Sadlier
Introduction to World Philosophies, ........................................................Eliot Deutsch
The World's Religions, .............................................................................Houston Smith
Philosophy 30, Asian Philosophy, Lecture Notes, ....................................Li Schroeder
Alcoholics Anonymous, 3rd Edition, 1976, .............................AA World Services, Inc.
The Hitch Hiker's Guide to the Galaxy................................................Douglas Adams
The
Bible, New International Version ............................Zondervan Bible Publishers
1
The HitchHiker's Guide to the Galaxy
2 The Wisdom of Buddhism, p128
3 The
World's Religions, 108
4 The World's Religions, 110
5 The World's Religions,
p124
6 The Spiritual Seekers Guide, p28
7 The Bible, NIV Mark 11:25
8
The Big Book of Alcoholics Anonymous p30
9 The Big Book of Alcoholics Anonymous
p60
10 The Big Book of Alcoholics Anonymous p61
11 The Big Book of Alcoholics
Anonymous, p62
12 The Big Book of Alcoholics Anonymous, p27
13 The Big Book
of Alcoholics Anonymous, p86
14 The Big Book of Alcoholics Anonymous, p84
15
The Big Book of Alcoholics Anonymous, p86
16 The Big Book of Alcoholics Anonymous,
p60
17 The Big Book of Alcoholics Anonymous, p84
18 The Big Book of Alcoholics
Anonymous, p93