The
mental exercise known as meditation is found in all religious systems. Prayer
is a form of discursive meditation, and in Hinduism the reciting of slokas and
mantras is employed to tranquilize the mind to a state of receptivity. In most
of these systems the goal is identified with the particular psychic results that
ensue, sometimes very quickly; and the visions that come in the semi-trance state,
or the sounds that are heard, are considered to be the end-result of the exercise.
This is not the case in the forms of meditation practiced in Buddhism.
There
is still comparatively little known about the mind, its functions and its powers,
and it is difficult for most people to distinguish between self-hypnosis, the
development of mediumistic states, and the real process of mental clarification
and direct perception which is the object of Buddhist mental concentration. The
fact that mystics of every religion have induced on themselves states wherein
they see visions and hear voices that are in accordance with their own religious
beliefs indicates that their meditation has resulted only in bringing to the surface
of the mind and objectifying the concepts already embedded in the deepest strata
of their subconscious minds. The Christian sees and converses with the saints
of whom he already knows; the Hindu visualizes the gods of the Hindu pantheon,
and so on. When Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, the Bengali mystic, began to turn
his thoughts towards Christianity, he saw visions of Jesus in his meditations,
in place of his former eidetic images of the Hindu Avatars.
The practiced
hypnotic subject becomes more and more readily able to surrender himself to the
suggestions made to him by the hypnotiser, and anyone who has studied this subject
is bound to see a connection between the mental state of compliance he has reached
and the facility with which the mystic can induce whatever kind of experiences
he wills himself to undergo. There is still another possibility latent in the
practice of meditation; the development of mediumistic faculties by which the
subject can actually see and hear beings on different planes of existence, the
Devalokas and the realm of the unhappy ghosts, for example. These worlds being
nearest to our own are the more readily accessible, and this is the true explanation
of the psychic phenomena of Western Spiritualism.
The object of Buddhist meditation,
however, is none of these things. They arise as side-products, but not only are
they not its goal, but they are hindrances which have to be overcome. The Christian
who has seen Jesus, or the Hindu who has conversed with Bhagavan Krishna may be
quite satisfied that he has fulfilled the purpose of his religious life, but the
Buddhist who sees a vision of the Buddha knows by that very fact that he has only
succeeded in objectifying a concept in his own mind, for the Buddha after his
Parinibbana is, in his own words, no longer visible to gods or men.
There
is an essential difference, then, between Buddhist meditation and concentration
and that practiced in other systems. The Buddhist embarking on a course of meditation
does well to recognize this difference and to establish in his own conscious mind
a clear idea of what it is he is trying to do.
The root-cause of rebirth and
suffering is avijja conjoined with and reacting upon tanha. These two causes form
a vicious circle; on the one hand, concepts, the result of ignorance, and on the
other hand, desire arising from concepts. The world of phenomena has no meaning
beyond the meaning given to it by our own interpretation.
When that interpretation
is conditioned by avijja, we are subject to the state known as vipallasa, or hallucination.
Sañña-vipallasa, hallucination of perception; citta-vipallasa, hallucination
of consciousness, and ditthi-vipallasa, hallucination of views, cause us to regard
that which is impermanent (anicca) as permanent, that which is painful (dukkha)
as a source of pleasure, and that which is unreal (anatta), or literally without
any self existence, as being a real, self-existing entity. Consequently, we place
a false interpretation on all the sensory experiences we gain through the six
channels of cognition, that is, the eye, ear, nose, tongue, sense of touch and
mind cakkhu, sota, ghana, jivha, kaya and mano (ayatana). Physics, by showing
that the realm of phenomena we know through these channels of cognition does not
really correspond to the physical world known to science, has confirmed this Buddhist
truth. We are deluded by our own senses. Pursuing what we imagine to be desirable,
an object of pleasure, we are in reality only following a shadow, trying to grasp
a mirage. It is anicca, dukkha, anatta -- impermanent, associated with suffering,
an insubstantial. Being so, it can only be the cause of impermanence, suffering
and insubstantiality, since like begets like; and we ourselves, who chase the
illusion, are also impermanent, subject to suffering and without any persistent
ego-principle. It is a case of a shadow pursuing a shadow.
The purpose of
Buddhist meditation, therefore, is to gain more than an intellectual understanding
of this truth, to liberate ourselves from the delusion and thereby put an end
to both ignorance and craving. If the meditation does not produce results tending
to this consummation -- results which are observable in the character and the
whole attitude to life -- it is clear that there is something wrong either with
the system or with the method of employing it. It is not enough to see lights,
to have visions or to experience ecstasy. These phenomena are too common to be
impressive to the Buddhist who really understands the purpose of Buddhist meditation.
There are actual dangers in them which are apparent to one who is also a student
of psychopathology.
In the Buddha's great discourse on the practice of mindfulness,
the Maha-satipatthana Sutta, both the object and the means of attaining it are
clearly set forth. Attentiveness to the movements of the body, to the ever-changing
states of the mind, is to be cultivated in order that their real nature should
be known. Instead of identifying these physical and mental phenomena with the
false concept of "self," we are to see them as they really are: movements
of a physical body, an aggregate of the four elements, (mahabhutas) subject to
physical laws of causality on the one hand, and on the other, a flux of successive
phases of consciousness arising and passing away in response to external stimuli.
They are to be viewed objectively, as though they were processes not associated
with ourselves but belonging to another order of phenomena.
From what can
selfishness and egotism proceed if not from the concept of "self" (sakkayaditthi)?
If the practice of any form of meditation leaves selfishness or egotism unabated,
it has not been successful. A tree is judged by its fruits and a man by his actions;
there is no other criterion. Particularly is this true in Buddhist psychology,
because the man is his actions. In the truest sense they, or the continuity of
kamma and vipaka which they represent, are the only claim he can make to any persistent
identity, not only through the different phases of this life but also from one
life to another. Attentiveness with regard to body and mind serves to break down
the illusion of self; and not only that, it also cuts off craving and attachment
to external objects, so that ultimately there is neither the "self"
that craves nor any object of craving. It is a long and arduous discipline, and
one that can only be undertaken in retirement from the world and its cares.
Yet
even a temporary retirement, a temporary course of this discipline, can bear good
results in that it establishes an attitude of mind which can be applied to some
degree in the ordinary situations of life. Detachment, objectivity, is an invaluable
aid to clear thinking; it enables a man to sum up a given situation without bias,
personal or otherwise, and to act in that situation with courage and discretion.
Another gift it bestows is that of concentration -- the ability to focus the mind
and keep it steadily fixed on a single point (ekaggata, or one-pointedness), and
this is the great secret of success in any undertaking. The mind is hard to tame;
it roams here and there restlessly as the wind, or like an untamed horse, but
when it is fully under control, it is the most powerful instrument in the whole
universe. He who has mastered his own mind is indeed master of the Three Worlds.
In the first place he is without fear. Fear arises because we associate mind
and body (nama-rupa) with "self"; consequently any harm to either is
considered to be harm done to oneself. But he who has broken down this illusion
by realizing that the five khandha process is merely the manifestation of cause
and effect, does not fear death or misfortune. He remains equable alike in success
and failure, unaffected by praise or blame. The only thing he fears is demeritorious
action, because he knows that no thing or person in the world can harm him except
himself, and as his detachment increases, he becomes less and less liable to demeritorious
deeds. Unwholesome action comes of an unwholesome mind, and as the mind becomes
purified, healed of its disorders, bad kamma ceases to accumulate. He comes to
have a horror of wrong action and to take greater and greater delight in those
deeds that are rooted in alobha, adosa, and amoha -- generosity, benevolence and
wisdom.
Anapana Sati
One of the most universally-applicable methods of
cultivating mental concentration is anapanasati, attentiveness on the in-going
and out-going breath. This, unlike the Yogic systems, does not call for any interference
with the normal breathing, the breath being merely used as a point on which to
fix the attention, at the tip of the nostrils. The attention must not wander,
even to follow the breath, but must be kept rigidly on the selected spot. In the
initial stages it is advisable to mark the respiration by counting, but as soon
as it is possible to keep the mind fixed without this artificial aid, it should
be discontinued and only used when it is necessary to recall the attention.
As
the state of mental quiescence (samatha) is approached, the breath appears to
become fainter and fainter, until it is hardly discernible. It is at this stage
that certain psychic phenomena appear, which may at first be disconcerting. A
stage is reached when the actual bodily dukkha, the sensation of arising and passing
away of the physical elements in the body, is felt. This is experienced as a disturbance,
but it must be remembered that it is an agitation that is always present in the
body but we are unaware of it until the mind becomes stabilized. It is the first
direct experience of the dukkha (suffering) which is inherent in all phenomena
-- the realization within oneself of the first of the Four Noble Truths, Dukkha
Ariya Sacca. When that is passed there follows the sensation of piti, rapturous
joy associated with the physical body. The teacher of vipassana, however, is careful
never to describe to his pupil beforehand what he is likely to experience, for
if he does so, there is a strong possibility that the power of suggestion will
produce a false reaction, particularly in those cases where the pupil is very
suggestible and greatly under the influence of the teacher.
Devices in Meditation
In
kammattana, it is permissible to use certain devices, such as the earth or color
kasina, as focal points for the attention. A candle flame, a hole in the wall,
or some metal object can also be used, and the method of using them is found in
the Pali texts and the Visuddhi-magga. In the texts themselves it is to be noted
that the Buddha gave objects of meditation to disciples in accordance with their
individual characteristics, and his unerring knowledge of the right technique
for each came from his insight into their previous births. Similarly with recursive
meditation, a subject would be given which was easily comprehensible to the pupil,
or which served to counteract some strong, unwholesome tendency in his nature.
Thus, to one attracted by sensual indulgence, the Buddha would recommend meditation
on the impurity of the body, or the "cemetery meditation." Here the
object is to counterbalance attraction by repulsion, but it is only a "skillful
means" to reach the final state, in which attraction and repulsion both cease
to exist. In the Arahant there is neither liking nor disliking: he regards all
things with perfect equanimity, as did Thera Maha Moggallana when he accepted
a handful of rice from a leper.
Beads
The use of the rosary in Buddhism
is often misunderstood. If it is used for the mechanical repetition of a set formula,
the repeating of so many phrases as an act of piety, as in other religions, its
value is negligible. When it is used as means of holding the attention and purifying
the mind, however, it can be a great help. One of the best ways of employing it,
because it calls for undivided attention, is to repeat the Pali formula of the
qualities of Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha, beginning "Iti'pi so Bhagava -- "
with the first bead, starting again with the second and continuing to the next
quality: "Iti'pi so Bhagava, Arahan -- " and so on until with the last
bead the entire formula is repeated from beginning to end. This cannot be carried
out successfully unless the mind is entirely concentrated on what is being done.
At the same time the recalling of the noble qualities of Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha
lifts the mind to a lofty plane, since the words carry with them a meaning the
impresses itself on the pattern of the thought-moments as they arise and pass
away. The value of this in terms of Abhidhamma psychology lies in the wholesome
nature of the cittakkhana, or "consciousness-moment" in its uppada (arising),
thiti (static) and bhanga (disappearing) phases. Each of these wholesome cittakkhana
contributes to the improvement of the sankhara; or aggregate of tendencies; in
other words, it directs the subsequent thought-moments into a higher realm and
tends to establish the character on that level.
Samatha Bhavana
Samatha
bhavana, the development of mental tranquillity with concentration, is accompanied
by three benefits; it gives happiness in the present life, a favorable rebirth,
and the freedom from mental defilements which is a prerequisite for attainment
of insight. In samatha the mind becomes like a still, clear pool completely free
from disturbance and agitation, and ready to mirror on its surface the nature
of things as they really are, the aspect of them which is hidden from ordinary
knowledge by the restlessness of craving. It is the peace and fulfillment which
is depicted on the features of the Buddha, investing his images with a significance
that impresses even those who have no knowledge of what it means. Such an image
of the Buddha can itself be a very suitable object of meditation, and is, in fact,
the one that most Buddhists instinctively use. The very sight of the tranquil
image can calm and pacify a mind distraught with worldly hopes and fears. It is
the certain and visible assurance of Nibbana.
Vipassana Bhavana
Vipassana
bhavana is realization of the three signs of being, anicca, dukkha, and anatta,
by direct insight. These three characteristics, impermanence, suffering and non-self,
can be grasped intellectually, as scientific and philosophical truth, but this
is not in itself sufficient to rid the mind of egoism and craving. The final objective
lies on a higher level of awareness, the direct "intuitional" plane,
where it is actually experienced as psychological fact. Until this personal confirmation
is obtained, the sphere of sense perception (ayatana) and sensory-responses remain
stronger than the intellectual conviction; the two function side by side on different
levels of consciousness, but it is usually the sphere dominated by avijja which
continues to determine the course of life by volitional action. The philosopher
who fails to live according to his philosophy is the most familiar example of
this incompatibility between theory and practice. When the direct perception is
obtained, however, what was at its highest intellectual level still merely a theory
becomes actual knowledge, in precisely the same way that we "know" when
we are hot or cold hungry or thirsty. The mind that has attained it is established
in the Dhamma, and pañña, wisdom, has taken the place of delusion.
Discursive meditation, such as that practiced in Christian devotion, is entirely
on the mental level, and can be undertaken by anyone at any time. It calls for
no special preparation or conditions. For the more advanced exercises of samatha
and vipassana, however, the strictest observance of sila, the basic moral rules,
becomes necessary. These techniques are best followed in seclusion, away from
the impurities of worldly life and under the guidance of an accomplished master.
Many people have done themselves psychic harm by embarking on them without due
care in this respect. It is not advisable for anyone to experiment on his own;
those who are unable to place themselves under a trustworthy teacher will do best
to confine themselves to discursive meditation. It cannot take them to enlightenment
but will benefit them morally and prepare them for the next stage.
The Practice
of Metta Bhavana
Metta bhavana is the most universally beneficial form of discursive
meditation, and can be practiced in any conditions. Thoughts of universal, undiscriminating
benevolence, like radio waves reaching out in all directions, sublimate the creative
energy of the mind. With steady perseverance in metta bhavana a point can be reached
at which it becomes impossible even to harbor a thought of ill-will. True peace
can only come to the world through minds that are at peace, If people everywhere
in the world could be persuaded to devote half an hour daily to the practice of
metta bhavana, we should see more real advance towards world peace and security
than international agreements will ever bring us. It would be a good thing if,
in this new era of the Buddha Sasana, people of all creeds could be invited to
take part in a world-wide movement for the practice of metta bhavana and pledge
themselves to live in accordance with the highest tenets of their own religion,
whatever it may be. In so doing they would be paying homage to the Supreme Buddha
and to their own particular religious teacher as well, for on this level all the
great religions of the world unite. If there is a common denominator to be found
among them, it is surely here, in the teaching of universal loving-kindness which
transcends doctrinal differences and draws all being together by the power of
a timeless and all-embracing truth.
The classic formulation of metta as an
attitude of mind to be developed by meditation is found in the Karaniya Metta
Sutta (Sutta Nipata, Khuddaka-patha) [See appendix]. It is recommended that this
sutta be recited before beginning meditation, and again at its close, a practice
which is invariably followed in the Buddhist countries. The verses of the sutta
embody the highest concept to which the thought of loving-kindness can reach,
and it serves both as a means of self-protection against unwholesome mental states
and as a subject of contemplation (kammatthana).
It is taught in Buddhism
that the cultivation of benevolence must begin with oneself. There is a profound
psychological truth in this, for no one who hates or despises himself consciously
or unconsciously can feel true loving-kindness for others. To each of us the self
is the nearest object; if one's attitude towards oneself is not a wholesome one,
the spring of love is poisoned at its source. This does not mean that we should
build up an idealized picture of ourselves as an object of admiration, but that,
while being fully aware of our faults and deficiencies, we should not condemn
but resolve to improve ourselves and cherish confidence in our ability to do so.
Metta bhavana, therefore, begins with the thought: "May I be free from
enmity; may I be free from ill-will; may I be rid of suffering; may I be happy."
This thought having been developed, the next stage is to apply it in exactly
the same form and to the same degree, to someone for whom one has naturally a
feeling of friendship.
In so doing, two points must be observed: the object
should be a living person, and should not be one of the opposite sex. The second
prohibition is to guard against the feeling of metta turning into its "near
enemy," sensuality. Those whose sensual leanings have a different orientation
must vary the rule to suit their own needs.
When the thought of metta has
been developed towards a friend, the next object should be someone towards whom
one has no marked feelings of like or dislike. Lastly, the though of metta is
to be turned towards someone who is hostile. It is here that difficulties arise.
They are to be expected, and the meditator must be prepared to meet and wrestle
with them. To this end, several techniques are described in the Visuddhimagga
and elsewhere. The first is to think of the hostile personality in terms of anatta
-- impersonality. The meditator is advised to analyze the hostile personality
into its impersonal components -- the body, the feelings, the perceptions, the
volitional formations and the consciousness. The body, to begin with, consists
of purely material items: hair of the head, hair of the body, skin, nails, teeth
and so on. There can be no basis for enmity against these. The feelings, perceptions,
volitional formations and consciousness are all transitory phenomena, interdependent,
conditioned and bound up with suffering. They are anicca, dukkha and anatta, impermanent,
fraught with suffering and void of selfhood. There is no more individual personality
in them than there is in the physical body itself. So towards them, likewise,
there can be no real ground for enmity.
If this approach should prove to be
not altogether effective, there are others in which emotionally counteractive
states of mind are brought into play, as for example regarding the hostile person
with compassion. The meditator should reflect: "As he (or she) is, so am
I. As I am, so is he. We are both bound to the inexorable Wheel of Life by ignorance
and craving. Both of us are subject to the law of cause and effect, and whatever
evil we do, for that we must suffer. Why then should I blame or call anyone my
enemy? Rather should I purify my mind and wish that he may do the same, so that
both of us may be freed from suffering."
If this thought is dwelt upon
and fully comprehended, feelings of hostility will be cast out. When the thought
of loving-kindness is exactly the same, in quality and degree, for all these four
objects -- oneself, one's friend, the person toward whom one is neutral, and the
enemy -- the meditation has been successful.
The next stage is to widen and
extend it. This process is a threefold one: suffusing metta without limitation,
suffusing it with limitation, and suffusing it in all of the ten directions, east,
west, north, south, the intermediate points, above and below.
In suffusing
metta without limitation (anodhiso-pharana), the meditator thinks of the objects
of loving-kindness under five heads: all sentient beings; all things that have
life; all beings that have come into existence; all that have personality; all
that have assumed individual being. For each of these groups separately he formulates
the thought: "May they be free from enmity; may they be free from enmity;
may they be free from ill will; may they be rid of suffering; may they be happy.
For each object he specifies the particular group which he is suffusing with metta:
"May all sentient beings be free from enmity, etc... May all things that
have life be free from enmity, etc." This meditation embraces all without
particular reference to locality, and so is called "suffusing without limitation."
In suffusing metta with limitation (odhiso-pharana), there are seven groups
which form the objects of the meditation. They are: all females; all males; all
Noble Ones (those who have attained any one of the states of Sainthood); all imperfect
ones; all Devas; all human beings; all beings in states of woe. Each of the groups
should be meditated upon as described above: "May all females be free from
enmity, etc." This method is called "suffusing metta with limitation"
because it defines the groups according to their nature and condition.
Suffusing
with metta all beings in the ten directions is carried out in the same way. Directing
his mind towards the east, the meditator concentrates on the thought: "May
all beings in the east be free from enmity; may they be free from ill will; may
they be rid of suffering; may they be happy!" And so with the beings in the
west, the north, the south, the north-east, south-west, north-west, south-east,
above and below.
Lastly, each of the twelve groups belonging to the unlimited
and limited suffusions of metta can be dealt with separately for each of the ten
directions, using the appropriate formulas.
It is taught that each of these
twenty-two modes of practicing metta bhavana is capable of being developed up
to the stage of a appana-samadhi, that is, the concentration which leads to jhana,
or mental absorption. For this reason it is described as the method for attaining
release of the mind through metta (metta cetovimutti). It is the first of the
Four Brahma Viharas, the sublime states of which the Karaniya Metta Sutta: "Brahmam
etam viharam idhamahu" -- "Here is declared the Highest Life."
Metta, karuna, mudita, upekkha: [see Nyanaponika Thera, The Four Sublime States,
Wheel 6.] loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy and detachment, these four
states of mind represent the highest levels of mundane consciousness. One who
has attained to them and dwells in them is impervious to the ills of life. Like
a god he moves and acts in undisturbed serenity, armored against the blows of
fate and the uncertainty of worldly conditions. And the first of them to be cultivated
is metta, because it is through boundless love that the mind gains its first taste
of liberation.
Appendix
Lovingkindness
as a Contemplation
Metta Sutta
From the Sutta Nipata, verses 143-52 (Spoken
by the Buddha)
What should be done by one skillful in good
So as to gain
the State of Peace is this:
Let him be able, and upright, and straight.
Easy
to speak to, gentle, and not proud,
Contented, too, supported easily.
With
few tasks, and living very lightly,
His faculties serene, prudent, and modest,
Unswayed
by the emotions of the clans;
And let him never do the slightest thing
That
other wise men might hold blamable.
(And let him think:) "In safety and
in bliss
May creatures all be of a blissful heart.
Whatever breathing beings
there may be,
No matter whether they are frail or firm,
With none excepted,
be they long or big
Or middle sized, or be they short or small
Or thick,
as well as those seen or unseen,
Or whether they are dwelling far or near,
Existing
or yet seeking to exist,
May creatures all be of a blissful heart.
Let
no one work another one's undoing
Or even slight him at all anywhere;
And
never let them wish each other ill
Through provocation or resentful thought."
And just as might a mother with her life
Protect the son that was her only
child,
So let him then for every living thing
Maintain unbounded consciousness
in being,
And let him too with love for all the world
Maintain unbounded
consciousness in being
Above, below, and all round in between,
Untroubled,
with no enemy or foe.
And while he stands or walks or while he sits
Or while
he lies down, free from drowsiness,
Let him resolve upon this mindfulness
This
is Divine Abiding here, they say.
But when he has no trafficking with views,
Is
virtuous, and has perfected seeing,
And purges greed for sensual desires.
He
surely comes no more to any womb.
The
Buddhist Publication Society
The Buddhist Publication Society is an approved
charity dedicated to making known the Teaching of the Buddha, which has a vital
message for people of all creeds.
Founded in 1958, the BPS has published a
wide variety of books and booklets covering a great range of topics. Its publications
include accurate annotated translations of the Buddha's discourses, standard reference
works, as well as original contemporary expositions of Buddhist thought and practice.
These works present Buddhism as it truly is -- a dynamic force which has influenced
receptive minds for the past 2500 years and is still as relevant today as it was
when it first arose.
A full list of our publications will be sent free of
charge upon request. Write to:
The Hony. Secretary
BUDDHIST PUBLICATION
SOCIETY
P.O. Box 61
54, Sangharaja Mawatha
Kandy
Sri Lanka